Chapter IX: The French Revolution

#41: Backgrounds

The Old Regime: The Three Estates

--Old Regime = prerevolutionary society. Still legally aristocratic, in some ways, feudal.

--Everyone belonged legally to one of 3 Estates, or "orders" of society: 1st) clergy, 2nd) nobility, 3rd) everyone else--from wealthiest businessmen to poorest peasants. Estates = important for legal rights and personal prestige. Otherwise, politicall y and socially obsolete.

--Clergy: conditions and position of clergy = much exaggerated because of French Revolution. Really, very much like Church of England, and waning with secularization of society. Church = important in that was deeply involved in prevailing political s ystem. Owned lots of land.

--Nobility: great resurgence since Louis XIV's death. Monopolized high government seats by Louis XVI's accession. Repeatedly blocked royal plans for taxation, desired to control policies of the state. Often arrogant, received preference for governmen t offices.

--Everyone else: Bourgeoisie: very influential. Great increases in foreign trade. As became stronger, better educated, they resented privileges enjoyed by nobles. Resented their superiority, arrogance, monopoly of high government offices. French Revo lution = very much a clash between 2 moving classes: rising aristocracy and rising bourgeoisie. Common people: about as well-off as in most countries. But not as wealthy as upper classes. Wage-earners = starting to = pinched by prices that rose faster tha n wages.

The Agrarian System of the Old Regime

--Peasants owed no robot. Worked for himself, on his own land or rented land, worked as a sharecropper, or hired himself out.

--Nobility rights: "Eminent Property": with respect to all land located in manorial village. Lesser landowners "owned" land in that could exchange it freely. But had to pay to manor's owner certain annual rents, and "transfer fees" whenever land = exc hanged. Peasants owned about 2/5 of land; bourgeois, <1/5; nobility, >1/5; church, <1/10. Rest = crown's, wasteland, or commons. French Revolution changed much of this: made private ownership free of such eminent property rights, manorial fees. Also aboli shed older forms of property: property in public office, mastership in guilds, etc.

--Farmers = mostly small, unlike in England and America. Manorial lord had no economic function. Increasingly resented as parasites by peasants when lords demanded more money, since inc. living standards required more money.

--Rising nationalism, due to centralizing, unifying power of monarchy.

#42: The Revolution and the Reorganization of France

The Financial Crisis

--French Revolution = precipitated by financial collapse of government. What overloaded government = its war costs, not royal extravagence, contrary to what many peasants supposed. French spent about 1/4th of budget to maintain current forces, and abo ut 1/2 to pay debts. French debt = not extraordinarily large: Brits, with < 1/2 of French population, had about the same debt, and was no greater than what Louis XIV left behind. Still, debt could not be carried because revenues = too small, because of ta x exemptions of privileged, church. Also, system of collection = corrupt, inefficient. Thus, although country = wealthy, treasury = often empty. Many, like John Law, Maupeou, Turgot, tried to reform, but failed.

--Louis XVI's attempts at reform: appointed Calonne <--suggested general tax on all landowners, lightening of indirect taxes, abolition of internal tariffs, confiscation of some church properties, establishment of provincial assemblies for all landow ners, regardless of class. But reform struck at privileges in taxation, and 3 orders of society. Calonne tried to gain support of power groups by convening "Assembly of Notables." But members demanded concessions of govt, which Calonne refused. Deadlock. Louis dismissed Calonne, appointed Brienne. Brienne pushed the same proposal, but rejected by Parlement of Paris. Brienne and Louis tried to dissolve Parlements, replace by modernized judiciary. Veritable revolt of nobility. Government brought to a halt, unable to borrow money or collect taxes. Louis promised to call Estates General for May, 1789. Various classes = invited to elect representatives and write up lists of grievances.

From Estates General to National Assembly

--Since no Estates General had met for over 150 years, Louis asked all people to study the subject, make proposals for its organization. Led to outburst of public political discussion. Many wanted that old system, by which each of 3 estates sat separa tely, voted as a unit, be discarded, since in that system, 3rd Estate = always outnumbered.

--Sept, 1788: Parlement of Paris ruled that system should be as before. Revealed aim of the nobility: to govern France through a permanent Estates General, in 3 chambers, of which would control the 1st 2. In return, nobles = willing for constitutiona l government, guarantees of personal liberty, freedom of speech and press, freedom from arbitrary arrest and confinement. Even willing to surrender tax privileges. Thus, French Revolution started as nobility's resurgence against king.

--But this system would suppress the 3rd Estate. 3rd Estate's hopes of a new era = at fever pitch with Am. Revolution, calling of Estates General. But hopes = crushed with ruling of Parlement of Paris in 1788, which they regarded as class insult. Thu s, started to regard nobility with detestation and distrust.

--Abb� Siey0s, Jan 1789: What is the Third Estate?: said that nobility = a useless caste which could = abolished without loss. Instead, 3rd Estate = the only nec. element of society. Brought Rousseau's ideas into mainstream of revolutionary thought.

--Estates General, May 1789: 3rd Estate boycotted. On June 17, 3rd Estate's representatives declared themselves the "National Assembly." In tennis court, signed Oath of the Tennis Court 3 days later, affirming that wherever they assembled, the Nationa l Assembly would exist, and that the National Assembly would not disband until wrote a constitution. A revolutionary move. Louis ordered them to reassemble in Estates General. Also, Louis presented program of reform, too late and too anemic to win any hea rts. National Assembly refused to attend Estates General; Louis let it exist.

--Louis sided with nobles against 3rd Estate. Historically, king would side with bourgeois against feudalist aristocrats. Seat of royal strength = with bourgeois. But because did not stand up for them, Louis alienated the 3rd Estate. Thus, 3rd Estate feared nobles more than ever, since they thought nobles had king on their side.

The Lower Classes in Action

--Beneath bourgeois, lower classes = getting out of hand. Poor harvest, halted trade with America, wage reductions, inc. prices of necessities, depression forced even honest people to vagrancy. Labor riots. Peasants declared that would no longer pay m anorial duties or taxes.

--Parisians = disturbed by inc vagrants, beggars, and troops encircling city. Began to arm in self-defense. One crowd assembled around Bastille, requested that the governor de-arm the fortress and supply them with arms. Governor refused, and through misunderstanding and agitators, crowd stormed Bastille. Governor and Mayor = killed. Armies did nothing to stop riots. Louis, confused, acknowledged citizens' committee, which had formed there, as new municipal government. Sent away troops, demanded that combatants, nobles, and clergy sit in National Assembly. New government formed bourgeois or national guards to maintain law and order.

--Great Fear of 1789: Peasants, armed to protect homes and crops, attacked manorial system. Burned manors, or archives in which debts, etc, = recorded.

The Initial Reforms of the National Assembly

--Only way to restore order = to meet demands of peasants. But such action would put bourgeois and nobility at great loss, which most = unwilling to endure. Thus, small group of National Assembly chose to meet on August 4. With most of opponents missi ng, several liberal nobles stepped forward, surrendered most of nobility's rights. Other representatives surrendered other group privileges. Peasant landowners thus rid themselves of manorial system, agreed to pay compensation in return. But compensation = largely avoided. Declared feudalism abolished.

--August 26: National Assembly issued Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Affirmed principles of the new state: rule of law, equal individual citizenship, collective sovreignty of people, rights of liberty, property, security, and freedom fr om oppression. Became catechism of the French Revolution.

--Revolution = meant for both sexes, but conducted mostly by men.

--Shortly after Declaration, National Assembly tried to construct new government. Dissent over proper strength of executive, which would be headed by king, and organization of legislative (1 or 2 branches?). "Patriot" party = afraid that existence of 2nd, "upper" party in legislature and strong executive would give nobility too much power. Patriots would not agree to anything nobles proposed. On Oct 4, group of market women and revolutionary militants beseiged Versailles, forced king to move to Paris, where he could be watched. National Assembly also moved to Paris, fell under influence of more radical elements. Eventually, National Assembly decreed for a one-chamber legislative, and executive (king) with only suspensive veto.

--Some more conservative revolutionaries felt that National Assembly = falling into unworthy hands, left National Assembly or even country. Counterrevolution = gathering strength.

--Some who wanted more reform organized into clubs. Most important = Society of Friends of the Constitution, or the Jacobin club, of mostly middle-class members, and highest members of National Assembly.

Constitutional Changes

--From Oct 1789 to Sept 1791, National Assembly, or Constituent Assembly (called so since was preparing a constitution) governed France, wrote constitution, and destroyed details of Old Regime. Incredibly thorough destruction of Old Regime. Implemente d a uniform municipal system. Highly decentralized in reaction to absolutism. No one outside Paris worked for central government. Local communities enforced or declined to enforce edicts as they chose. System proved ruinous when war came.

--Constitution of 1791: Sovereign power = unicameral elected body, called Legislative Assembly. Executive had only power to postpone edicts. Louis tried to flee from country, but captured, returned, and forced to accept his constitutional monarchy. E scape attempt = dubbed "Flight to Varennes."

--Machinery of state = not all democratic. Most = illiterate, so only "active," or financially independent people = allowed to vote. Higher property qualifications = nec to become "electors." All, though, have same civil rights.

Economic Policies

--Favored middle, not lowest class. To pay national debt, owed mostly to bourgeois, National Assembly confiscated and sold all church lands. Peasants with money had trouble buying these lands. Landless peasants = roused when government proposed dividi ng common lands for private property. Reform favored free economic individualism: economic thought of the time, as with Adam Smith, = that organized special interest = bad for society, and that free market = good. National Assembly abolished guilds, and l ater, compagnonnages (organizations for tradesmen excluded from guilds) in Le Chapelier Law of 1791<---also forbade organization of special economic interest of any kind.

The Quarrel with the Church

--State confiscated all church properties, although church originally supported the French Revolution. But this = not the main bone of contention. Rather, church objected to National Assembly's view that church = another social institution, subordinat e to sovreign power, or Legislative Assembly<---Tried to reorganize church as French Nat Church. Rejected all papal authority. Clergy = paid by state. Sinecures = abolished. Prohibited taking of all religious vows, dissolved monasteries. Most of these = m ade law in Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790.

--Many in Gallican church = willing to make such reforms, if allowed to produce it under their own authority. But National Assembly would not give them such authority, and appealed to Catholic church to make them obey. But pope condemned all of French Revolution, so National Assembly demanded that all in church take oath of loyalty to Civil Constitution. About half of priests and most of bishops refused. Thus, TWO churches = formed: one refractory, the other, constitutional.

--Refractory clergy turned violently counterrevolutionary. Argued for religious supremacy of pope. Called constitutional clergy concerned only for their jobs.

--Constitutional clergy called themselves patriots and defenders of human rights.

--Catholic laity = puzzled, terrified. Many = sufficiently attached to French Revolution to prefer constitutional, but to do so = to defy the pope, a bad thing.

--LOUIS prefered refractory, burst all hope that he might work with National Assembly, for to do so = to endanger his immortal soul. Same for many aristocrats.

--Peasants, many of whom lost interest after abolition of manorial regime, also favored refractory. Basically same for urban working-class families.

--Civil Constitution = called the greatest tactical blunder of French Revolution. Church of 19c would be antidemocratic, antiliberal. Democrats and liberals would be violently and outspokenly anticlerical. Church of France = on the whole thrown to pop e. Start of Catholic Church's inc centralization at Vatican.

--After Civil Constitution, National Assembly disbanded, ruled that none of members might sit in forthcoming Legislative Assembly. New regime thus went into effect in October, 1791. Legislative Assembly would fall in 10 months, in August, from popular insurrection. Four months before, Legislative Assembly would bring France to war, under leadership of a group of Jacobins, called the Girondins.

#43: The Revolution and Europe: the War and the "Second" Revolution, 1792

International Impact of the Revolution

--Doctrines of French Revolution = highly exportable, lended themselves to universal statements, univeral philosophy. French Revolution could = interpreted as revolt of nobility, bourgeoisie, or common people, depending on what interpreters wanted to see. Special interest groups tried to justify their causes with French Revolution. But excluded, poor classes of European society = most affected. Thomas Paine, other British radicals demanded thorough overhaul of Parliament and established Church, corres dponded with Assembly in Paris. Irish = agitated, revolted. Young idealists, like Hegel and Wordsworth, embraced French Revolution.

--Anti-Revolutionary movement = also steaming up. Edmund Burke, frightened by French influence on English radicals, wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France: predicted anarchy and dictatorship for French, and warned Brits to slowly adapt their ow n traditional liberties. Wrote against universal human rights; rather, each people must = shaped by its own national circumstances, history, and character. In reply, Paine wrote Rights of Man. Burke began to preach war against France to suppress its anti- monarchist ideology. Remaining European monarchs suppressed domestic anti-monarchy sentiment.

--Europe and America = split into pro- and anti-French factions. Jeffersonians vs. Hamiltonians in America. Revolutionary or pro-French factions existed in every European country, feared by their own governments.

The Coming of War, April 1792

--European governments = slow to act. In Britain, William Pitt, British Prime Minister, resisted Burke's war cries. War would have ruined his program of orderly finance and systematic economy. Even Antoinette's brother, Leopold II of Austria, refused to help Bourbouns. Told sister to instead adapt to her conditions.

--Still, new French government = a menace. New ideology created disturbnces in other nations. Constituent Assembly tended to overstep its authority, jurisdiction in international affairs: made edicts to apply, basically, in other nations.

--August, 1791: Declaration of Pillnitz: Leopold met king of Prussia at Pillnitz in Saxony. Declaration stated that Leopold would take military action to restore order in France IF all other European powers would join him. Leopold never expected to ta ke action, since knew Pitt's aversion to it. But French emigr�s everywhere used it as open threat to revolutionary government in France.

--Revolutionaries in France = alarmed. Declaration, instead of cowing the French, enraged them against crowned heads of Europe. Gave political advantage to the then dominant Jacobin faction, the Girondins.

--Girondins: became party of international revolution. Declared that Revolution could never be secure until had spread through rest of Europe. Thought that, once war began, peoples of opposing nations would not support their governments. Girondins con sidered war with neighboring countries: planned to unite with local revolutionaries, overthrow established governments, and set up a federation of republics.

--War = also favored by party led by Lafayette<---Wished to curb French Revolution to a constitutional monarchy. Mistakenly thought that war would restore Louis' popularity, unite the nation under new government.

--Leopold died. Succeeded by Francis II, who = much more prone to submit to old aristocracy's wishes. On April 20, 1792, Assembly declared war against Austrian monarchy.

The "Second" Revolution: August 10, 1792

--War intensified existing unrest and dissatisfaction among lower, unpropertied classes. Urban workers and peasants felt that Assemblies had served propertied interests, not theirs. Peasants = unhappy with inadequate land distribution measures. Worker s felt pinch of soaring prices. Fleeing nobles, or emigr�s, had taken away France' gold. Sole money = paper, or assignats, and future of government = so uncertain that currency steadily lost value. Peasants concealed food rather than sell it for assignats . All combined to drive up cost of living.

--Still, war unified the people. All rallied to Revolution, but not to Assembly. Most had lost confidence in Assembly.

--Austria and Prussia joined forces. By summer of '92, were on verge of entering France. On July 25, 1792, signed the Brunswick Manifesto: declared that if any harm befell French King or Queen, Austrio-Prussian forces would take revenge on inhabitants of Paris.

--French people rallied around most violent Jacobins, most notably, Robespierre, Danton, Marat. Nation burst into patriotic excitement. People turned against Louis. Troops and provincials pouring through Paris on way to battlefronts stirred agitation in Paris. In August 10, 1792, poor quarter of city rose in revolt, seized and imprisoned royal family. Revolutionary municipal government, the "Commune," = set up, usurped Legislative Assembly. Commune forced abrogation of constitution, and election, by u niversal male suffrage, of a Constitutional Convention to prepare a new one. Meanwhile, hysteria, anarchy, and terror regned in Paris. 1,100 people = taken from prisons and executed as domestic enemies. These killings = called the "September Massacres."

#44: The Emergency Republic, 1792-1795: The Terror

The National Convention

--National Convention met on Sept 20, 1792. Sat for 3 years.

--French armies = advancing: Belgium, Savoy, etc. Revolutionary sympathizers in these areas appealed for French aid. National Convention decreed that French generals should extend French Revolution to conquered territories.

--British and Dutch = prepared to resist. Entered talks with Prussia and Austria when French declared war on Brits and Dutch. Meanwhile, Prussia and Russia agreed to Second Partition of Poland. Austria = anxious, being left out of partition, for its E . European interests. French = saved by weakness of opposing Coalition: Brits and Dutch had small land armies, and Prussia and Austria = too jealous of each other, too concerned with E. Europe to fully devote forces to France.

--All leaders of Convention = Jacobins, but Jacobins = again splitting. In addition to Girondins appeared the "Mountain," or Montagnards<---representatives of Paris, derived most of strength from radical and popular elements of the city. These element s called themselves the "sans-culottes," (for wearing common man's trousers) composed of pre-industrial working class. Their militancy and activism pressed Revolution forward. They demanded equality meaningful for their class, called for military revenge against nations that dare interfere in French affairs, and denounced king and queen for supporting Austrian cause. Feared that Convention could be too moderate. Dismissed by Girondins as anarchists.

--Convention convicted and executed Louis XVI on January 15, 1793, by majority of one. Those who voted for execution = dubbed regicides: could never allow, for self-interest, the return of any monarchy. Others = called Girondins, "moderatists," counte rrevolutionaries. All who wanted more from French Revolution, or feared that slightest wavering in resolve could bring military defeat to Coalition, looked to Montagnards.

Background to the Terror

--April, 1793: Dumouriez, the best French general, defected to Austria. Allied armies again threatened to invade France. Counterrevolutionaries exulted. Revolutionaries cried that French Revolution = betrayed. Economy = worsening. Sans-culottes demand ed economic measures, denounced bourgeois as exploiters of people. Montagnards went along with sans-culottes, from sympathy with their ideas, to win mass support for war, and to get rid of Girondins. On May 31, 1793, Convention assembled mass of demonstra tors to purge Paris of Girondins.

--Montagnards controlled Convention, but Convention's power = eroding. Foreign armies and emigr�s = at France's doorstep. Vend�e's (<---a region of France) peasants revolted against military conscription. Great provincial cities rebelled, esp. after fugitive Girondins reached them<---objected to ascendancy of Paris, demanded less centralized republic. Counterrevolutionary. Many foreigners, royalists, emigr�s, clerics, etc. streamed in to help them.

--Convention also had to defend itself against extremists of Left

--Although Convention lacked strong leaders, it followed Robespierre's program for about 1 year.

--Maximilien Robespierre: Thought by some as bloodthirsty fanatic, dictator, demagogue; by others as idealist, visionary, ardent patriot, democrat; by all as honest, zealous for French Revolution, and having great personal integrity. Became prominen t among Montagnards. Resisted bribery, corruption, known as "Incorruptible." Believed, like Montesquieu and Rousseau that republics depended on virtue, or unselfish public zeal. Set about to make democratic republic of good citizens and honest men.

Program of the Convention, 1793-94: The Terror

-- " " " " = to repress anarchy, civil strife, counterrevolution at home, and win the war by great national mobilization of country's people and resources. Convention would not yield to any other organization of direct revolutionary acti on.

--Convention granted wide powers to 12-man Committee of Public Safety<---to repress counterrevolution, Committee set up "Reign of Terror." Set up revolutionary courts as alternative to "lynch law" of September Massacre. Created a Committee of General Security a supreme political police, designed to protect Revolutionary Republic from internal enemies: struck those in league against Republic or those merely suspected of hostile activities. Terror lasted from about late summer of 1793 to July 1794, kil led about 40,000. Terror made no distinctions along class lines.

--A democratic republic, founded on Declaration of the Rights of Man, was supposed to follow the Terror once war and emergency were over. But meanwhile, Terror violated all these rights. Terror left long memories in France of antipathy to Revolution and republicanism.

--Committe of Public Safety: operated as joint dictatorship or war cabinet. Prepared and guided legislation through the Convention. Established Bulliten des Loix, which let all persons know which laws to enforce or obey. Centralized the administration , converting the swarms of locally elected officials left over from Legislative Assembly into centrally appointed "national agents." Proclaimed lev�e en masse, calling all able-bodied men to army. Recruited scientists to work on munitions, armaments. Inst ituted economic controls, satisfying enrag�s, other groups: assignats stabilized, thus securing both government's and people's purchasing power. Secured food and supplies for armies and civilians. Set "general maximums" for prices and wages, but not succe ssful, since Convention believed in free market, and did not have effective means of enforcement, anyway. Showed intentions of legislating for lower classes: answered demands of sans-culottes, destroyed last of manorial regime. Involved in social services , public improvement. In Laws of Ventose, tried even to confiscate property of suspected enemies of state, and give to indigent patriots<---but never drafted into workable form, and subsequently failed. Intended to introduce universal elementary education , and higher for talented. Freed slaves in colonies.

--June 1793: Committee produced, had Convention adopt, a republican constitution, providing for universal male suffrage. But constitution = indefinitely suspended: government = declared "revolutionary," or extraconstitutional until peace.

--Committe had little patience for unauthorized revolutionary violence. Disapproved of popular clubs, local assemblies. Arrested leading enrag�s. Tried to disband potential trouble-makers.

--H�bertists: Extreme revolutionaries. Large and indefinable group including mny members of Convention. Indiscriminately denounced merchants and bourgeois. They were the party of the Extreme Terror.

--Believed all religion = counter-revolutionary, so launched movement of Dechristianization. Even tried to destroy Christian calendar. Manifestation in cult of reason that spread all over France by end of 1793. Parisian bishop resigned, said he had been deluded. But Dechristianization = severely frowned on by Robespierre, since thought it would alienate masses of French people from Revolution, ruin sympathy abroad for French Revolution. Thus, Robespierre tried to reconcile Christians by tolerating p eaceful Catholics, recognizing existence of God and immortality of soul. But Catholics = beyond reconciliation.

--Committee relentlessly persecuted, axed H�bertists. Parliamentary "revolutionary armies" = suppressed. Extreme Terrorists = recalled from provinces. Paris Commune = destroyed. Robespierre filled Paris' municipal offices with his own appointees. Tri ed to control economy, excusing economic intervention as military necesity. But alienated ex-H�bertists, working-class spokesmen, who = disillusioned with French Revolution. Not to appear rightist, Robespierre axed several from a group of right-wing Monta gnards, called Dantonists.

--By spring, 1794, French Republic had army 800,000 strong, largest ever among European powers. Also, the most effective, since was a national army, representing people and its interests. Soldiers had incentive to fight. By June, 1794, French ran thr ough Belgium, Low Countries, even Amsterdam. Allied forces = still distracted with ambitions in Poland.

--With military success, French = less willing to endure dictatorial rule and economic regime of Terror. Robespierre and Committee of Public Safety had antagonized all significant parties. At death of Danton, National Convention = afraid of Committee . Thus, a group in Convention secured Robespierre's and others' executions on 9 Thermidor(<---a month in new French calendar), or July 27, 1794. Many who turned against Robespierre thought they = advancing French Revolution, as in purging Girondins the ye ar before. Others thought they = stopping a tyrant. All scapegoated Robespierre by heaping all blame on him.

The Thermidorian Reaction

--Terror subsided. National Convention reduced powers of Committee of Public Safety, closed the Jacobin club. Removed economic controls: prices rose, working class suffered more than ever. Sporadic risings broke out: greatest = the Insurrection of Pra irial, 1795: mob all but dispersed Convention by force. Fighting in Paris, troops = called in. Army prevailed: 10,000 of insurgents = arrested, imprisoned, or deported. Rebel leaders = axed.

--Main winners = bourgeois class, which had guided Revolution since Constituent Assembly, and was never really unseated. Bourgeois = not one of modern profit-hungry capitalists, but an older bourgeois of lawyers, officeholders who benefited from Old R egime, and often drew income from land. Included many nouveaux riches, who made money from inflation, wartime contracts, etc: with former aristocrats, n. riches set up a noisy, ostentatious lifestyle that sullied the new order. Also, murdered many Jacobin s.

--Still, although associated pure democracy with terror and mob rule, most Thermidorians believed in individual legal rights, constitutional government, written constitution. Country = still unstable (at peace with Spain, Prussia; at war with GBR and Austria), but made another constitution to go into effect at end of 1795.

#45: The Constitutional Republic: The Directory, 1795-99

The Weakness of the Directory

--Directory = first formally constituted French Republic, lasted only 4 years. Weakness = its extremely narrow social base, and that it presupposed certain military conquests. New constitution committed the Republic to program of successful expansion. Also, restricted the politically active class: universal male suffrage, but voted only for electors, as before.

--Electors = only those men who could afford to leave work for extended periods of time, usually of some means: thus, usually from upper-middle class. Old aristocracy = disaffected. These electors chose rest of government: Legislative Assembly, divid ed into two chambers: lower = Council of 500; Upper = 250-member Council of Ancients<---men over 40 years old. These chambers chose executive. Government = thus in hands of substantial property owners, both rural and urban.

--But real power base = still narrower. In Thermidor reaction, many people considered restoring monarchy. To protect its members, Convention ruled that 2/5 of members of Convention must also be in two new chambers. This interference with freedom of e lections provoked serious disturbances in Paris, riots by "royalists." Convention called on young Bonaparte to put down riots, which he did with "whiff of grapeshot." Thus, constitutional republic made itself dependent on military power from beginning.

--Enemies from both left and right.

--Undisguised royalists agitated Paris and two Councils. Power center = Clichy Club, and were in continuous correspondence with Louis XVI's brother, Louis XVIII, Count of Provence<---installed in Verona, Italy, where headed propoganda agency. But on assuming title of Louis in 1795, Louis issued Delcaration of Verona: announced his intention to restore Old Regime, punish all involved in Revolution as far back as 1789. Bulk of French population would have supported him had he taken a more moderate pos ition, but not with his Declaration of Verona. Left = made of people from various levels of society who favored more democratic ideals of early Revolution. Still thought that death of Robespierre = great misfortune. Tiny group of extremists formed Conspir acy of Equals in 1796, under Babeuf. His intention = to overthrow the Directory and replace with dictatorial government that he called "democratic," in which private property = abolished and equality = decreed. Directory suppressed Conspiracy easily, guil lotined Babeuf.

Political Crisis of 1797

--March, 1797: first really free French election held under republican government. Elected candidates = mostly constitutional monarchists, or vaguely royalist. Was obvious to republicans of Directory that election could not stand, lest monarchy return .

--Napoleon Bonaparte: Almost a mercenary? He and his forces = out of control of Parisian government. He lived by local requisitions in Italy, became self-supporting and independent, even made Parisian government depend on him. He, not Parisian govern ment, provided his troops with supplies and money, so they = loyal to him.

--Arrival of French revolution threw northern Italy into turmoil: many Italians = dissatisfied with old governments, so conditions were ripe for revolution. Napoleon organized some of these revolutionary cities into Cisalpine Republic in Po River va lley, modeled on French system, with capital at Milan. Thus, while Directory wanted to give Milan back to Austria in compensation for Austrian recognition of a French Belgium, Bonaparte wanted Directory to hold fast to both Belgium and Milan.

--Britain = in dire need of peace. Could no longer finance Austrian allies. Great political unrest at home. Food prices skyrocketed: inflation, since much of gold went to Continent to finance war. Famine threatened. Ireland = in revolt.

--Thus, with victory of royalists, prospects of peace = good: royalists = peace party in France, since a retored king could easily give up conquests of republic. For republic, however, peace = very difficult: they = constitutionally bound to retain B elgium. Republic = losing control, as with Bonaparte, of its own generals.

--Is peace dear enough to purchase with loss of conquered lands and return of Old Regime?

--Coup d'�tat of Fructidor (September, 1797): solved many of these questions. Directory turned to young General Napoleon Bonaparte for help: while Bonaparte's forces stood by, the councils annulled most of elections. Justification = that they were def ending the Revolution. But in process had violated their own constitution and quashed the first free election held under constitutional French republic. Also, Directory would be even more dependent on army.

--After coup d'�tat, government broke off negotiations with Britain. Signed treaty of Campo Formio in October with Austria: France got what Bonaparte wanted, but gave Venice and most of mainland Venetia in return. France = thus still at war with Brit ain.

The Coup d'�tat of 1799: Bonaparte

--Idea of maintaining republic as free or constitutional government = given up. There were more uprisings, quashed elections, purgings. Directory became ineffective dictatorship. It repudiated most of assignats and debt, but failed to restore economic confidence or stability. Guerilla warfare again in western France. Religious schism became more acute: Directory took more severe measures against refractory clergy.

--Bonaparte = assigned to invade England. But he thought that invasion would be premature; intead, struck at England indirectly by threatening India in conquering Egypt (1798). Austria, Russia, and GBR formed alliance called Second Coalition. France = again in general war.

--War went badly at first: French armies = cut off in Egypt, Cisalpine Republic went down in ruin.

--Bonaparte slipped through blockade, left armies in Egypt. Arrived in France, where saw that some leaders of Directory wanted a change. One such leader = Abb� Siey0s, who wanted aquiescence from people, and power to act from government. This group wa nted a general, looked to Bonaparte. But military dictatorship = repugnant to most, so Bonaparte, Siey0s, and followers conducted coup d'�tat of Brumaire (November, 1799), in which armed soldiers drove legislators from the chambers. New government = calle d the Consulate, headed by 3 Consuls, of which Bonparte = the first.

#46: The Despotic Republic: The Consulate, 1799-1804

--Under Consulate, France reverted to kind of enlightened despotism. Definitely despotic: self-government through elected bodies = ruthlessly pushed aside. Bonaparte loved to affirm sovreignty of people, but never actually acted on it.

--New constitution set up make-believe of parliamentary institutions. There was inversal male suffrage, but could elect only notables, or men available for appointment to public positions. Notables had no power on their own. At any rate, First Consul made all important decisions and ran the state. The regime represented nobody openly, and thus, provoked less opposition. Political machinery fell rapidly into disuse.

--Bonaparte entrenched himself by promising and delivering peace: signed treaties with Russia, Austria, and even Britain. Also, effected domestic peace: kept internal order partly by secret political police, and partly by a powerful centralized admini stration, in which a "prefect," under direct orders from the center, would rule firmly over each of departments created by Consituent Assembly. Bonaparte offered general amnesty to exiles of all kinds, and invited them back to France, with few exceptions. Required them only to work for him and stop quarreling with each other. Picked reasonable men from all camps: Fouch�, ex-H�bertist, = minister of police; Talleyrand, constitutional monarchist, = minister of foreign affairs.

--Disturbers of new order = ruthlessly suppressed. Bonaparte even concocted alarms to make himself more welcomed as pillar of order.

The Settlement with the Church, Other Reforms.

--Bonaparte saw religion as convenience for administration of state. Advertised himself as Muslim in Egypt, Catholic in France, and free-thinker among professors at Insitute in Paris. But Catholic revival = in full swing, and he took advantage of it. Refractory clergy = spiritual force behind all forms of counterrevolution. He had to take the power from out of their hands. In 1801, he signed a concordat with Vatican.

--Concordat: Autonomy of Gallican church = ended. Pope received right to depose French bishops. Publicity of Catholic worship = allowed. Church seminaries = permitted. Bonaparte, in pope's signature, got holy recognition of French republic<---no longe r "godless." New owners of former church properties got clear titles. No further question of Avignon. Formally recognized religious toleration. Clergy = placed of state salary: to dispell notion of a state church, also put Protestant ministers on payroll.

--With peace and order established, Consulate turned to law and administration. Bonaparte combined what he thought = the best aspects of both the Old Regime and the Revolution.

--New government = reverse of everything feudal: public authority = concentrated in salaried agents of government. No person = under any legal authority except that of state. All people = equal under the law. Citizens = allowed to rise in government according to ability only<---what the bourgeoisie had wanted before the Revolution. Qualification = increasingly dependent on education, which cost money: thus, upper and middle classes benefited most. Education became important determinant in social stan ding.

--No tax exemptions based on birth: everyone had to pay, so there was no disgrace attached to payment. In principle, these changes had been instituted in 1789, but only started to work in 1799. Better accounting measures = instituted. Consulate = fre e from Directory's bad reputation of repudiating debt, and was able to establish a sound currency and public credit.

--Codified the laws. 5 codes = most important: Civil Code, codes of civil and criminal procedure, and commercial and penal codes. These codes made France legally and judicially uniform, ensured all French citizens of the same civil rights. Set up new property, contract, debt, lease, etc. laws to create legal framework for an economy of private enterprise. But made it easier to detect crime than to let the individual defend himself. Reflected much of French life under the Old Regime. Set character of France through today: socially bourgeois, legally egalitarian, and administratively bureaucratic.

--With Consulate, Revolution ended. Third Estate got what it most wanted codified and enforced, except for parliamentary government. Working-class movement vanished. Peace prevailed. Napoleon became so popular that got elected consul for life in 1802. In 1804, Napoleon got another constitution ratified establishing Consulate as Empire, and himself as Emperor.

--France = immensely powerful. France could now tap wealth of its entire population. Better-quality officers and administrators, since = appointed by merit only.