Chapter VIII: The Age of Enlightenment

#36: The Philosophes and Others

--Spirit of 18c = derived from scientific and intellectual revolution of 17c. Carried over and popularized ideas of 17c's great thinkers. An age very skeptical of tradition, confident in powers of human reason and science, convinced of harmony and reg ularity of nature, and imbued with sense of civilization's advance and progress. Moderns declared that their own time, not Greeks' or Romans', = the best. Ceased to fear God: he = instead, just, loving, benevolent. God as Watchmaker.

--But continuing religious fervor. Much reform. John Wesley, etc. Also, a taste for mysticism. Physiognomy. Mesmer's "animal magnetism." Freemasonry, other secret societies<---but suspected of trying to subvery society, suppressed.

--Philosophes: men of letters, popularizers of new thought. Wrote much for the expanding reading public, middle class.

--Censorship: exercised loosely by the Church, Parlement of Paris, royal officials, and printer's guilds. Writers = leglly prohibited from criticizing Church or State. Thus, threw their attacks on an abstract level, attacked crimes in general. Very s ly innuendos, so writer could deny the meaning if questioned. Readers, in turn, developed taste for forbidden books.

--Philo's, other liberal writers met in stylish salons of well-to-do.

--Encyclop�die: Diderot's thang. Compendium of scientific, technical, historical knowledge, w/ strong udnertone of criticism for existing society. Epitomized skeptical, rational, scientific spirit of the age. Almost all Philo's contributed. Widely kn own and read, since French = international language.

--Montesquieu: Held that forms of government varied with times and circumstances, climates. Also against absolutism: thought power within nation should mimick that among nations. Checks and balances. Greatly admired the English constitution as he und erstood it, thinking England had most successfully carried over the liberties of the Middle Ages. Admired the Middle Ages.

--Voltaire: actually, Francois-Marie Arouet. Writing style: always logical, trenchant, incisive. Sometimes mocking and sarcastic, master of irony and ridicule. Very easy to read. However serious, got his points cross w/ a laugh. Incorrigible bourgeou is, never objected to aristocracy in principle. Friend of Fred the Great. Very rich. Mainly interested in freedom of thought. Admired England, saw Newton's state burial. Voltaire's writings brought Brits increasingly into European consciousness, populariz ed new scientific ideas. Admired Brit religious liberty, relative freedom of press, high regard for men of letters. "Ecrasez l'infame": "Crush the infamous thing," meaning bigotry, intolerance, superstition, and behind it, the power of an organized Church . Argued for reason as teacher of universal morality, "natural religion," "natural morality." No supernatural revelation in addition to reason = desirabel or necessary. First to present a purely secular conception of world history. Presented Judeo-Christ ian religion as mere opinion.

--Neither liberal nor democrat. Low esteem for majority of humans. So long as govt = enlightened, did not care how powerful it was. Liberty = for those who know how to use it. By enlightened, meant one that fought against sloth nd stupidity, kept cl ergy subordinte, allowed free thought and religion, advnced material and technological progress. Enlightened or rational despotism. Only a few could = enlightened, only a few could rule. (Won's note--vs. English system of govt, which he admired so much?)

--Rousseau: Social outcast? Did not get much hair pie. Possibly paranoic, constantly suspected even his friends. Talked incessantly of his own innocence, virtue, and that he was misunderstood. But still, important and influential. Felt that in presen t society, a good person could not be happy. Therefore attacked it, called it artificial and corrupt. Even ttcked reason as afalse guide when followed alone. Civilization = source of much evil, and "state of nature" would be much better. Best traits of hu man character = products of nature. Deep below reason, there is feeling. He became the man of feeling, child of nture, forerunner of romanticism. In Social Contract, Rousseau said that govt = agreement among people themselves. A social, not merely politic al contract. All individuals surrendered their natural liberty to each other, fused their wills into a General Will, agreed to accept rulings of GW as final. GW = sovereign, above kings, absolute, sacred, inviolable. Govt = secondary. GW = not necessarily the majority opinion. Rather, the common interest that unites them.

--Prophet of nationalism and democracy by describing community of individul concern, participation.

--Skilled novelist. Questions fashions of his age, made aristocracy of France question their own superiority. Wellspring of modern humanitarianism, led to new sense of human equality.

--Political Economists, or Physiocrats: Close to govt as administrators or advisors. Concerned themselves with fiscal and tax reform. Opposed guild regulations, price controls as impediments to production and circulation of goods. Best = laissez faire . But favored strong govt to overcome traditional obstructions, support new industry. Founders of modern economics: Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations <---Attacked mercantilism, favored free trade. Free market. Govt should = restrained to defense and internal law and order. Business should = private affair. "Invisible hand" of enlightened self-interest of millions would in the end result in highest welfare of all. Market mechanisms, etc.

--Main agent of change = state. Rightly ordered govt = thought best guarantee of social welfare. But still, no nationalism. Man = unified under common reason, no volksgeist.

#37: Enlightened Despotism: France, Austria, Prussia

--Typical enlightened despot differed from predecessors minly in attitude and tempo. Little of divine right of kings, even of hereditary right to throne. Justified his position on grounds of social utility, servant of state. Very secular: favored tole ration of religion. Rational and reformist: typical despot set out to reform his state by reason. Impatient of past customs, which he thought as false, feudal, etc. Less willing to compromise, acted abruptly, desiring quicker results. An accleration of th e old monarchy, which put aside its past quasi-sacred mantle. Product of philosophes, other thinkers AND necessities of wars at hand, which forced concentration and rationalization of govt power.

--France: Least successful here. Louis XV = basically absorbed in pomp of Versailles, uninterested in govt. All problems traceble to poor system of taxation. Burden of tax fell heavily on peasants. Nobles, who should bear most of burden, = exempt. Chu rch, which owned 5-10%, insisted that its lands = untaxable. Instead, gave small "free gift" to govt periodically. Although land = rich, govt = chronically poor. Attempts at tax reform constantly failed, even after massive war debts of mid 18c. W/ humilia ting reversals of 7 Years' War, govt decided to centralize power. Louis XV let Maupeou, chancellor, replace most of old parlements with new ones. But new parlements = deprived of old powers, save purely judicial functions. But Louis dies soon, successor = Louis XVI. Kingdom cried against tyranny of Maupeou, demands for restoration of Parlement of Paris. Not to be called despot, Louis recalled old parlement, abolished Maupeou's, and thus pacified upper class. But also appointed a reforming ministry: appoin ted Turgot, physiocrat and philosophe, as its head. Turgot tried to suppress guilds. Allowed freer commerce. Began to review tax system, issued money tax for all classes. Parlement of Paris ardently opposed him, nd he resigned in 1776. Parlements made ref orm impossible.

--Austria: War of 1740s led to internal consolidation. Aided by good ministers. Govt = non-national in character: aim = preventing dissolution of monarchy by increasing flow of taxes, soldiers. Broke up diets of local nobles. Fused Bohemia to Austria, but left Hungary, profoundly separatist, alone. Professionals from govt replaced negligent local nobles in administering central power locally. Checked local guilds to create largest area of free trade on Continent. Tried to ameliorate serfdom, from humn e motives, and in the process, had to attack landed aristocracy. Laws = oft evaded, but conditions improved.

--Under Joseph II: Mother, though steady in intent, = often contented with prtil measures. Joe would not compromise. Wanted total reform now. Thought that right and reason lay on his side. His opponents, supporters of old order, = evil, and it = sin to compromise. The state = greatest good for greatest number of people. Decreed uniformity of taxation and justice, but also made punishments more humane. Total liberty of press, toleration of all but a few stupid religions. Even allowed Jews equal rights . Clashed openly with Pope. Supressed many monasteries. Tried to centralize state: unwisely tried to subject Hungary also, since wht = right must be right everywhere. Hard-pressed, growing, increasingly disciplined body of officials tried to effect policy . Bureaucracy = recognizably modern. Clergy = made servants of state, teaching respect for govt. Also, sercret police to prevent subversion. Died early, with Hungary, Belgium in revolt, outraged at violation of old constitutional liberties. Most of Joseph 's order's = impossible to effect. Jospeh = revolutionary w/out party. Showed how legally absolute could not do totally as he pleased. Had to work on a wave of public opinion, not ahead of it.

--Under Leopold: Re-consolidated state, giving concessions to nobles, clergy, etc. But did not yield entirely. Nobles = still restrined, peasants better off.

--Prussia: Fred the Great spent rest of reign rehabilitating country, agriculture, industry, treasury, drilling army and assimilating Silesia. Fame as enlightened ruler = not from actual reform, but from his intellect. No sweeping changes = nec. Count ry = docile under Lutheran church, burghers = largely dependent on crown, nd Junker landlords = already somewhat subordinated by Fred's predecessors. Simplified and codified the law, made law courts more accessible, cheaper, more honest. Granted religious freedom, but could not get public education. But society = still stratified. Peasants, burghers, and nobles = "segregated," flow among classes = difficult. Serfs, though, = better off than elsewhere. Fred made all important decisions.

#39 Enlightened Despotism: Russia

--Russian played no great part in European thought, but European thinkers = well-known in Russia. Upper classes = well-versed in French thought. Further alienated the upper class.

--Rapid succession of rulers before Cath. the Great shows lawless struggle of parties, since there was no principle of succession: Peter earlier said each ruler should choose successor.

--Cathy: Intellectually very strong. Possibly used correspondence with Western philosophers to give Russia publicity. At first, propsed reform: legal codification, restiction of use of torture, some freedom of religion, except f or Old Believers. Consolidated machinery of state. But with great peasant rebellion of 1773, Pugachev's Rebellion, all ideas of reform dissolved. Hundreds of thousands of serfs flocked around Pugchev, who claimed to be Peter III. Upper class of Moscow = t errified: 100,000 serfs lived there as servants, and they supported Pug. Armies = eventually dispersed by famine, nd Pugachev captured and killed. Cathy repressed serfs. Conceded more power to landlords. Landlords hda absolute authority over serfs.

--Foreign affairs: great territorial expansion. Cathy wanted to take up all land from Poland to Turkey, which stretched through Egypt: called Eastern Question. Defeated the Turks in 1768, but checked by diplomtic pressures of European balance of powe r. Result = first partition of Poland. Wanted to involve Prussia and Austria in war with revolting France, so she could have free hand in Eastern Question. Eventully got Turkey in 1774. Later made Austria and Prussia agree to 2 more partitions. In partiti ons, others saw crumbling of old Balance of Power system, since large powers = ganging up on smaller ones, eliminating them without even war. Rights = not even safe during peacetime. French = hurt by partitions, since used Poland as outpost of French infl uence in East.

--Limitations of Enlightened Despotism: Possibly forshadowed an age of revolution, a preliminary attempt to push reform from above. States become more sovereign to meet the task. Questioned all old and established ideas. Favored equality of its subjec ts, but could not go too far in that direction: "no government can be revolutionary to the point of breaking up its own foundations." The king himself = a hereditary aristocrat. Could reform no further. Vast aristocratic and feudal revival. After French R evolut., all monarchy = backward-looking.

#39: The British Reform Movement, #40: The American Revolution