Chapter VII: The Scientific View of the World

#32: Prophets of a Scientific Civilization: Bacon and Descartes

--Both addressed problem of nature of knowledge, epistemology. Both deemed almost all previous knowledge worthless, ridculed the ancients, esp. Aristotle, mocked scholasticsm. Advocated new inductive reasoning over past deductive thought, a new constr uctive, true and relible method of knowledge. Once nature = understood by the methods' means, men could use the knowledge for their own purposes. Advent of scientific civilization.

--Bacon: advocated inductive method. Told men to throw away all past knowledge, rediscover truth for themselves. Leading philosopher of empiricism <-- always a good safeguard against dogma. Utility of knowledge: there was no distinct line between app lied and theoretic science. In this coming together of knowledge and power, we have modern notion of progress. But Bacon never influenced actual development of science, since never took into account potentials of mathematics. Neglected it, since thought it to o purely rational, deductive.

--Descartes = famous for mathematics: Cartesian plane, a fundamental link for translating physical realities into mathematics. Systematic doubt. Cartesian dualism: God created 2 kinds of reality: 1) subjective, existing only inside mind, like color, taste, etc., and 2) objective, existing independently of mind, quanititative, reducible to mathematical formulae.

#33: The Road to Newton: The Law of Universal Gravititation

--Advancement of mathmatics: became easier to realize Descarte's vision of a mathematical world.

--Scientific Revolution: A "simpler mathematical formulation was better than a complex one." Ptolemaic to Copernican, via Kepler, Galileo. Also, Galileo's work in dynamics.

--Newton: Principia. Promise of science seemed fulfilled. Great value to artillery, navigation, etc.

--Better steam engines. Watt's design.

--Royal Society of London. Academy of Sciences in France. Science periodicals, societies.

--Influence on thought: Universe = not a Christian one. Areligious. Although man = relegated to insignificant spot in universe, people thought man stronger and greater than ever before: rejected religious notion of man as depraved, thought him instead noble, rational, almost godlike. Religion lost much of power. Secularizing society. But still, even most enlightened held some old beliefs.

#34: New Knowledge of Man and Society

--Foreign trade opened up influence of non-European cultures, ideologies. Undermined European ideas, showed variety of human races, thought. Everything = becoming relativistic.

--Harder to believe in absolute rightness of any one mode of life or dogma. Increasing repect, at least among intellectuals, for foreign cultures, esp. of Orient.

--Strong current of skepticism: idea that what = considered truth = often just opinion, and it = foolish to adhere too strongly to any one belief.

--But most people = not satisfied with doubting everything. Not constructive. Looked not for disbelief, but for understanding. Desire took form in a new sense of evidence. To require evidence before belief = way to be scientific, or at least to believ e in power of human intelligence. End of witch-hunts. Systematic accumilation of historical evidence. Not all = trusted that was in print.

--Questioning of traditional beliefs: Richard Simon: questioned authenticity of Bible. Spinoza: advocated a sort of pantheism, denied inspiration of Bible, a pure, stern ehtical code, rejected all revelation and revealed religion. Locke: engaging dire ctness and sober air of a sensible man of the world. Tolerance of religion, except for Catholics. Tabula Rasa, empiricism. Man = good, but corrupted by bad govt, social institutions.

#35: Political Theory: School of Natural Law

--Advocated theory of natural law, code of behavior and rights for all human beings. Universal, above governments and all peoples, discoverable by reason. Favored a cosmopolitan outlook, and made international agreement and world progress seem realiza ble goals. International law: immunity of ambassadors, freedom of seas, admiralty and maritime law proposed.

--Some thought natural law an aspect of law of God. Other thought the law stood on its own.

--Hobbes: materialistic system that left no room for a God. Sided with king: disliked instability, brutality of 1640's and 50's. Thought humans have no ability of self-government, low opinion of human nature. Life in state of nature = "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." For fear of each other, to obtain order, and enjoy advantages of law and right, men made govt. Ruler had to have unrestricted power to maintain order. Leading proponent of absolutism. Govt = not divine, but purely secular. But never a popular thinker: his irrelgion = too dangerous to make public, and he reuired certain social responsibilities of kings. Held that king derived his power, at least originally, from free rational agreement of his subjects. Flagrantly bad monarchy c ould = overthrown even by Hobbes' doctrine.

--Locke: made many ideas of the Middle ages progressive in the Enlightenment. Also thought that govt = made for human purpose, not divine. Based on a kind of social contract. But thought better of human nature. Thoguth humans could learn from experien ce, could be enlightened. Favored self-govt. Men had moral sense. Inalienable rights: life, liberty, property. Heavy emphasis on property by which he meant mostly land. Humans should be free to exercise their own will, since are rational. Govt tht breaks social contract may be overthrown if nec. Revolt = very dangerous, destructive, but better than its alternative: slavery.

--Manifestations of these ideas in Revolution of 1688. See above.