Chapter VI: The Struggle for Wealth and Empire

Themes: increase of knowledge and wealth by 18th C.; growing cultural separation of elite from drudging majority; development of global economy, enriching W. Europe; duel between GBR and France, between Prussia and Austria; Spread of bnks, technology, better agriculture, better ships, more literature, more science, larger professionl armies, more government.

#28: Elite and Popular Cultures

--Greater distinction between upper and lower classes

--Elites of special interests--medicine, law, etc.--in wealth, social position, power.

--difference between local dialects (peasant language) and standard forms. Influence of printing schooling, national literatures in formation of this dichotomy. Facility in national language = sign of elite culture: elite culture = transmitted large ly by books, ideas = more rapidly disseminated here than in popular culture, which traveled mainly by word of mouth. Popular ideas = up to 1 century behind those of upper class.

--Humanism of Renaissance, transmitted largely through Greek and Latin, = mostly upper-class. Strength of Protestant Reformation = in its combination of efforts of highly educated people with hopes of very ordinary people.

--Later influence of scientific discovery on later thought, Elightenment.

--Great improvement of standard of living for middle, upper class vs. bare destitution of majority of peasantry <---possibly worse off than in Middle Ages.

--Beverages: spread of coffee, te, sugar, whiskey, gin: drunkeness a social problem, esp. in lower classes: Hogarth's Gin Lane.

--Religion--All classes went to same churches, heard same sermons, subject to same moral and religious obligations, transcending social lines. But skepticism eventually pervaded upper class, while peasants still very Christianized. Again, dichotomy.

--Worse congestion in cities: Rich and poor subject to same diseases, but rich had educated doctors, poor, quacks. Fears of crop failure or local famine. Charity organizations. Riots.

--Upper class polite manners, based on French standard. Populace seen as uncouth, crude. Court jesters and fools disappeared as tastes refined. Salons, styled dancing.

--Printers as intermediaries between elite and populace: printed for both. Composed cheap "literature" for populace: many tales of medieval times, King Arthur, Charlemagne, etc. Occult still figured in popular mind, disappeared from elite. No more wit ch trials.

--Fairs, carnivals: expressions of popular culture. Time for defying custom, ridiculing authority. Eventually spurned by elite, scorned on by government as inciting subversion.

--But before 1800, some elite "rediscovered" common people, their folklore, etc.

#29: Global Economy of 18th C.

--Western Europe the center of trade between Orient, America, and Africa. Brits, French, Dutch the main powers. Europe incomparably wealthier than any other part of world.

--Commercial capitalism, handicraft industry the main sources of wealth. Power-driven mchinery not important until 19th C. Instead, while it contained seeds of later capitalism, economic system of 18c represented flowering of older merchant capitalis m, domestic industry, mercantilist govt policies.

--Most people lived in country. Agriculture = still the biggest industry. Cities = still small. Urbanization not equated with industrilization since most industry still done at home, by peasants, part-time agricultural workers who worked for merchant capitalists of towns. Although foreign trade = inc. in volume, domestic trade = probably greater. GBR, with half of French population, had greatest internal free trade: insignificant guild system, no internal tariffs, no internal monopolies except to inve ntors.

--Still, foreign trade = important since largest enterprises = in it, greatest commerical fortunes made from it, most capital accumulated from it, and later led to international rivalry and war.

--World Economy:

--Dutch: After Utrecht, ceased to be great political power, but still great in shipping, commerce, finance. Dutch capital = in every large commercial venture of Europe, lent to govt's. Many nations tried to establish East India companies to monopoliz e lucrative trade routes to Orient. But w/ exception of Dutch E.I.Co., all failed after a few years for lack of capital or because lacked strong diplomatic, naval, or military support. In far foreign trade, merchants needed strong national backing to succ eed.

--Hence, Brits and French won the commerical rivarly of 18c: both had high domestic industrial production, national govt's able to protect and advance their mercanitilist principles abroad, interests of their merchnts in far countries. Spectacular en richment and economic expansion. British: America and Asia. French: rest of Europe and Near East. Colonial and commerical wars between the two nations.

--Global trading patterns:

--Asia: Asia wanted nothing Western except its gold. Europe wanted everything Eastern. Thus, constant drain of gold to East for spices, cotton, tea, porcelain. Oriental princes fabulously wealthy, populace destitute. West had to replenish gold supply from mines in Gold Coast, Americas.

--Many Eastern manufactures imitated in West: mock porcelain, cotton later with intro of power machinery.

--America, Africa: trade w/ America bulked larger than w/ Asia. Almost one commodity: sugar. Plantation system: large tract of land, large capital investment, force of impressed labor (Black slaves). Carribean islands most productive. W/ rise of this system, slavery became fundamental economic institution. Slaves, manufactured goods to Americas, and sugar, tobacco, and indigo to Europe, which merchants dispersed to their own people and farther east to Poland, Russia, in return for more agriculture, r aw materials. Profits of agriculture for East. Europeans reduced most of population to serfdom, helped Westernize upper classes.

--Social consequences:

-Most of vast wealth flowed into private men of Western Europe. Govt's depended on these men for $, for had almost no revenue except from taxes of these people. When wealthy gave support, as in England, govt = successful. When wealthy withdrew, as in France, govt fell.

-Wealth to produce more wealth (capital) = in hands of very few in significant amounts. Some became incredibly rich very quickly: time of opportunity. Intermediate layers = more comfortable. Bottom = worse off. Intermarriage w/ nobility, esp. old lan ded families. Merchants immediately bought landed estates in France, England. Bourgeois and aristocratic forms of property tended to merge, united in exploiting commoners. Poor could influence govt only through revolt.

-"Diamond" Pitt: Eastern trade. Jean Laborde: Haitian sugar plantations.

#20: W. Europee after Utrecht, 1713-40

--Utrecht: defeat of French ambitions in wars of Louis XIV. European state system preserved. Balance of power. Bourboun king of Spain, partitioned Spanish empire: America and Philippines = still Spanish, though. GBR emerged as most dynamic of Altantic powers.

--Spain: Somewhat rejuvinated. Decadence halted. Followed Louis XIV absolutist model. Actually, little changed in substance. Old machinery just functioned with greater precision.

--France & Britain: both had ineffective kings, various propertied classes gained many advantages, went through financial experimentation: bubbles, both eventually governed by statesmen. But one stood for absolutism, the other for constitutionalism.

--France: Louis XV only a child. Govt trusted to regent, Duke of Orleans. Nobles and populace dissatisfied with absolutism because of destruction it caused. Noble reappeared in government. Parlements vigorously reasserted themselves. Regent conceded much power to Parlement of Paris. Others broadened position, claimed right to assent to legislation and taxes, refusing to enforce whta considered contrary to unwritten constitution or fundamental laws of France. Absolutism checked and balanced by organiz ed privileged groups.

--Britain: Parliament = effective machine for conduct of public business. Through machination of bosses, purchase of seats, most interests got represented at least in Commons. Although corrupt, slow, and expensive, was effective. Basically sovereign power over legislation.

--Whether maintain the principles (limited monarchy, constitutionalism, parliamentary supremacy, rule of law, toleration of dissenting Protestants, other Lockeian ideas) of Revolution of 1688: Whigs = still minority made of great nobles, wealthy Lon don merchants, lesser business people, Non-conformists in religion. Whigs had House of Lords, but Commons = uncertain. During Utrecht, Commons = Tory. But after 1714, the parties tended to dissolve. In general, people close to central govt stayed "Whig," people in country suspicious of London formed country party far different from Tories.

--Tories, Non-Jurors, Scots made up milieu after 1688 from which counter-revolution might develop. Critical of "Whig" wars against France, national debt, distrustful of moneyed and business interests. Looked wistifully to exiled Stuart line. Looked to "James III," or Pretender. Followers called "Jacobites." Felt that if should renounce Catholicism, he = rightful king of England. Whigs could not tolerate this. James' return would undo Glorious Revolution. Also, holders of stock in Bank of Eng. would = ruined, since Jmes would surely repudiate war debt. James III landed in Scotland in 1715, proclaimed revoltion, but easily defeated. In 1745, James' son, "Bonnie Prince Charlie," or "Young Pretender," did the same, but more successful. Crushed with Germ an help. Govt. set out to destroy Jacobitism in Highlands. Strenghtened parliamentary regime in England.

--"Bubbles": Both France and England had to pay huge national debt. In England, much of debt = held by companies organized for that purpose. Govt would charter a company, give it monopoly in some business, and receive from the company a large loan af ter people bought shares in the company. Hence, the Bnk of England (1694), E.Ind. Co. (1708) and South Sea Co. (1711). SSCo = organized to take advantage of asiento right taken earlier from Spnish. France similarly organized Mississippi Co. (1717) to trad e with Louisiana. Miss.Co. soon absorbed French E.Ind., China, Senegal, and African Companies. Monopoly of all French colonial trade. Assumed entire French war debt, giving out company stock in return for certificates of royal indebtedness. Proposed to pa y debt by profits from trade. Also proposed great tax reform to make tax more fair to taxpayers and more lucrative to govt. Stock = gobbled up. But company never realized its projects, and shareholders began to unload. Prices collapsed. Similarly, S.Sea C o. took over much of govt debt, gve stock in return. Stock gobbled up. But holders doubted if Co. could make profit fast enough to justify huge price for stock. Began to unload, prices collapsed.

--Aftermath: Huge outrage in both countries. John Law, the Scottish mastermind of Miss. Co. bubble, fled. French affairs soon assumed by Cardinal Fleury. In Britain, a change of ministers: rise of Robert Walpole. France: Law's Bank, though useful, = dissolved in reaction against him. Morbid fear of paper securities, marked preference for land. Commercial capitalism = thus retarded. Much of French war debt = repudiated. Tax reform failed. With little revenue, and repudiating debt, French monarchy had little credit. Britain: All companies, and Bank = temporarily discredited, but Walpole managed to save them. Repudiated none of debt, so credit stayed firm. Set aside strict part of govt budget to pay interest, etc. Debt = considered a debt of the Englis h people: while French, since could not tell their king what to do, distrusted their king, did not give him money, the Brits could tell Parliament what to do. All people had stake in government.

--Both Walpole and Fleury tried to keep their nations out of war to prevent taxing their public, but failed.

#31: The Great War of the Mid-18c: The Peace of Paris, 1763.

War of Austrian Succession, 1740-1748

7 Years' War, 1756-1763

--18c warfare: Somewhat slow, formal, elaborate, indecisive. Armies filled with men considered socially useless: productive members of society not conscripted. Soldiers = class apart, paid wages, enlisted for long terms, professional, highly trained, barracked, brightly uniformed. Weapons = not destructive: infantry with smooth-bore muskets. In war, needed great supply depots to work, so could not march a few days beyond their bases. Gnerals hesitated to risk troops, since so expensive to train and ar m. Strategy = not destroying other's army, but maneuvering for position. Little national feeling of any kind. War = between oligarchies, governments, not between whole peoples. Civilians = little affected, except in India, America. Most of fighting = nava l, well outside of normal experience. War = mostly harmless. Govts could withdraw from war much more easily: no war hysteria or pressure of mass opinion. Enemy of today could = ally of tomorrow. Peace treaties = negotiated, not imposed.

--War of Austrian Sucession: Started by Frederick II, or the "Great" of Prussia. Probbly only king to be a respectable thinker on his own right. Very French. Corresponded with Voltaire, etc. Decided to conquer Silesia, violating Pragmatic Sanction. Al l turned against Maria Theresa (Habsburg), including France, which wanted Belgium and hated the Habsburgs. France wanted to reduce Germany to terms of Peace of Westphalia, prevent imminent German ascendancy. Franco-Prussian-Spanish forces highly successfu l. Forced Maria to accept Frederick's separate offers of peace. Maria gave him Silesia, he left war. Other two almost set up puppet state in Bohemia. Dutch and Brits, w/ inadequate land forces, = unable to help in Europe. But Brits, w/ Americans, threaten ed to cut off French from their W. Ind. colonies, and thus, one of great sources of revenue. Brit warships drove Spanish and French off the seas. All willing to negotiate.

-Peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748: based on Brit-French agreement to which Maria = forced to concur. Restored conditions mostly to those before war, except gave Silesia to Prussia, lost a few Italian duchies to Spain. French gave up Belgium. Austrians very dissatisfied. Showed weakness of French position: because had huge army, could not concentrate on sea, and so could not hold gains in Europe or abroad. Austria and Prussia = still contending over Silesia, a very rich, populated, and industrial area. The Peace = just a truce between Britain and France. Austria encouraged French ambitions at Belgium in return for uniting against Prussia. Brits, for balance of power and impressed by Prussian army, sided with Prussia. Thus, tables turned. This switch = t he Diplomatic Revolution of 1756. Also, Austria = allied with Russia against Prussia.

--7 Year's War: Began in America, but start w/ Europe. Austria, France, and Russia tried to partition Prussia, relegate the Hohenzollerns to Brandenburg. But depite great population disadvantage, Prussians, with high percentage of men in very efficien t army, fought well under Frederick, a military genius. Coalition tended to fall apart: Austria would not promise France Belgium, and Russia alarmed allies the farther West it moved. French lacked enthusiasm. Prussians eventually fought only Austria, easi ly beat it. By Peace of Hubertusburg, 1763, Fred. lost nothing, even Silesia. For the rest, war was battle between French and Brits for supremacy in world economy, control of colonies and sea. Both had possessions in East, West Indies. In america, French had more land, the Brits, more people. But French had support of Indians. Many spots of contenition: Nova Scotia, Ohio River, etc. War declared in 1756. Brits took Fort Dusquesne, Louisburg, and Quebec, ending French N. America.

--India: 2 main religions: Hinduism, Islam. Ruling class = Islamic, called Great Moguls. But there was great restlessness among Hindus. Revolt against Moguls, eventually force India into political dissolution. Many separate princely states = set up, fought among one another. Waves of invaders came from outside. Brit and French get involved in political situation as suited their interests. Some = caught up in dreams of empire, personal fortune. Clive and Brit navy guard and advance Brit commercial int erests in India, over French. But no colonial ambitions.

--Peace of 1763--at Paris. Brit got all of French N. America east of Miss. Spain got land wesr of Miss, + river's mouth. Prussia and Austria survived, as rivals. French and Brit commerce inc. greatly. Brit steadily took place of Moguls, India became one of Brit's great sources of wealth. Brit naval power = ultimate.