Chapter 5

--Rebel Army: Army needed training, discipline, organization under set system of officers. Most people did not want to join the army. Although willing to fight in nearby battles, did not want to leave family for extended periods of time. Washington could muster only 10000 men to enlist until end of 1776, with 7000 short-term militiamen. Congress could not get men for Washington, could not force states to meet their assigned quotas. Also short on supplies.

--Canada: Rumors that, although not willing to send men, Canada would welcome invading army. Arnold and Montgomery marched men to Quebec after grueling winter march. Only 1000 men reached destination, and Canadaians would not help. Already got Montreal in north, but forces got too thinned at Quebec. Retreated to Ticonderoga, left Canada alone.

--Stage I: NY and NJ: Parliament authorized 55000 troops, hired 30000 German mercenaries, under command of Howes. Arrived at NY harbor and Long Island in mid-Aug. Howes launched both frontal flank attacks on Washington's 23000 men, mostly inexperienced mi litia. Forced to retreat to Manhattan with heavy losses. By November, Continental Army, weakened by captures, injuries, and desertions, was in full retreat across NJ. Crossed Delaware on Dec 7. Brits occupied Newport, RI. By end of year, all but 1500 of W ash's troops would leave. On night of Dec 25, attacked by crossing Delaware, took 900 prisoners. Victory persuaded many to re-enlist. At Princeton, again defeated Brits, pulled back to Morristown to winter. Brits went to New Brunswick.

--Stage II: War in the North: Come spring, Home stormed Philadelphia, which contained large loyalist population. Burgoyne in north = authorized by high command to march south from Canada by Lake Champlain. But Americans, under Gates and Arnold, repeatedly attacked, causing heavy British losses. In Oct 1777, surrendered at Saratoga. Surrender did not seriously reduce British margin of superiority, but had great effect internationally. In London, complacent Parliament = confronted for first time with possib ility of losing the war. Authorized committee headed by Carlisle to give Americans everything they previously wanted. But England's eagerness to have them back just made France more eager to recognize and assist rebellion, and humiliate their rival. Franc e = already eager, already sent much munitions, but unwilling to join war against England while it seemed to be winning in NY. Spain = unwilling, even afraid to support, lest its own colonies get the wrong idea. French foreign minister, Vergennes, prepare d for war with or without Spain. Realizing that American victory could produce conciliatory temper in England, decided to enter treaty of alliance with Americans, obliging neither to make peace with England without other's consent. France also renounced a ll future claims to English claims on American continent.

--Stage III: To Yorktown: British became cautious. Howe did not even attack Wash's starving forces in Valley Forge during winter of 77-78. Spring of 78: Clinton replaced Howe, and entry of France let Americans refuse British peace overtures. Brits decided to play it safe, withdraw from Philly to NY. There should plan major campaign in South, where, strategists said, large number of loyalists would lend a decisive hand. Also, Wash's Valley Forge troops = whipped into shape by Prussian Baron von Steuben, ma de into hard, maneuverable army. French ships came and went, no support. Wash followed Brits from NJ to NY, camped outside the city in White Plains, waited for French navy to draw Brit Navy away, but never came. Meanwhile, British expeditionary force capt ured Georgia. Leaving army equivalent to Wash's in NY, and takin troops from Newport, sailed with expeditionary force to Charles Town. Took it in May, 80, along with entire defending force of 5500 men. Carolinas = open to British sweep. In June, Clinton s ailed back to NY, told Cornwallis to secure SC, then get NC. Cornwallis at first successful. In Aug, routed Gates and 3000 men who were coming to defense of SC. Wash sent Greene to help: built a mobile fighting unit that harried Cornwallis here and there. Cornwallis went to VA, Greene to SC and GA. Corn. settled in Yorktown on peninsula undefended by navy. Thus, could be totally isolated. Wash got news that French sent 20 ships to around Chesapeake, but could stay for only short time. Leaving some of force behind to fool Clinton, dashed south to Cornwallis. Other forces under Wayne and Lafayette = nearby. Barras, commander of Fre. forces at Newport, sailed to Newport with seige guns. When British navy tried to help, were repulsed by superior force. Closed in on, captured Yorktown.

--Peace: War = effectively over in America, but Vergennes obligated France, and also America, to keep on fighting until Spain got Gibralter. But Spain refused to recognize Americn independence. After Yorktown, though George III wanted to continue, ministr y wanted to stop war, and North = ousted. Congress appointed Franklin, Jay, and Adams to negotiate peace with English. Brits had to acknowledge American independence, but otherwise, negotiators = free. But had to do everything with knowledge of the French . On hearing that England, France, and Spain might be considering splitting America among themselves, negotiators violated both their instructions. But by playing off English desire for colonies not to ally with French, Americans secured both independence and boundaries originally specified by Adams. Signed on Nov 30, 1782, presented to French as a fait accompli. Final treaties among other three on Sept 3, 1783.

--Experimental Period: From 1776 to 1789, explored ramifications of their independence.

--Americanisms: Separation of church and state, free education did not arise immediately. But assumption that widespread education = good = reflected in spread of schools. Broader tolerance in religion grew. Principle that "all men = created equal" = an A mericanism that later translated into social mobility. Statement had great ramifications for slavery: made Americans seem very hypocritical. Also made Americans very suspicious of anything resembling aristocracy. War had equalizing effect on property dist ribution. Some thought equal wealth an end in itself. Reduced property qualitifications for voters. Colonial insistence on responsible representative government brought Fathers to inevitable solution of Republicanism. Colonial lower house = broadened and given more powers. Upper houses = filled, not with aristocrats, but with former lower house members , all responsible to the people. Government became servant of people, not vice-versa. Many colonies wrote constitutions to delineate government's powers in black and white, rather than tradition. Power to revise constitution = elevated above legislature.

--Articles of Confederation: Desire for responsible, easily controlled national governmetn also prevented creation of effective national government for long time. Many americans thought republican system unfit for large areas: legislature must be so far f rom constituents that representatives could not take care of people. But small republic could not defend against larger nations. Hence, the union of small republics in the Articles of Confederation, ratified in Feb 81. Articles provided for system of govt . much like the Congresses. Empowered to regulate war, Indian affairs, requistition sttes for men and money (NOT tax), etc. But Maryland wouldn't accept until VA gave up all its lands, and Articles could not be installed. Unless landed states gave up land s, citizens would move to VA to avoid the higher MD taxes. VA capitulated, and other states soon followed, provided that free lands be made into separate republics. But as need for unified action lessened, states becme more enamored of their own power, be came casual with relations with Congress. Congress allowed less powers than Americans allowed for Parliament. Difficulty in amassing and transporting delegates slowed business intolerably. Had no capital. Had responsibility without power. Could not even g et money from its own states.

--Success of Northwest lands: got revenues from sales of townships of 36 miles square, etc. allowed sttehood when the populations equaled any of the others. Ohio Co. bought much land from Congress in deflated currency, but Congress ccepted since desperate for money. To oblige Co., and make settling more attractive, congress passed NW Ordinance of 1787: provided for government there so anarchy wouldn't result.

--National Humiliation: England never completely evacuated the NW, Spain never recognized American possession of any territory south of Ohio. As poverty of new nation grew, Europeans plotted to push Americ's frontiers as far back as Appalchians. Not every one was convinced America could last. Brits kept trading posts and military garrisons in Canada, charging that americans violated Treaty of Paris when states passed laws impeding collections of British debts. America = in no condition to try to remove Bri tish troops by force. British failed to establish legation in America as the Americans did in Britain. In SW, Spain grasped for territory that later became Kentucky, Tenn. The many Am. settlers there relied on Miss. River to float goods to New Orleans and elsewhere, but Spain closed the river to American navigation, waited for settlers to abandon Congress for economic advantages of Spanish citizenship. Many considered switching, since disgusted with way Easterners treated their interests. Spain tried to w ring Miss. R. from America, but in negotiations, traded recognition of Am. SW and trading privileges in Spain for sole trading rights of Miss R. for 25 years. North and Middle strongly supported, but South opposed. Polarized nation. Also, American ships p rivateered as long as sailed under their own flags. Britain traded political authority for economic superiority. Needed nation-wide authority to secure Americans' interests abroad.

--Crisis of American Nationality: Many politicians, other Americans found that needed stronger central government. But also feared that too much central power could bring another tyrrany. This fear was strong enough to prevent national constitutional conv ention until 1786, when sick of British trade restrictions, conflicting state commercial laws, and national economic helplessness, they arranged for interstate meeting at Annapolis. Called to consider regulation of trade. During winter of 86-87, some 2000 Western farmers arose in Shay's Rebellion, prompted all states but RI to send delgates to Philly to revise Articles of Confederation for fear of chaos.

--Great Convention: Great assemblage of talent, experience, tradition. All eager for more powerful central government. Realized two obstacles: American fear of national government, and rivalry among states, esp. rivalry between North and South. Madison's structure of Govt: Approtion power by population. This = not dangerous because interests of people in small states = not nec. different from anyone else. To keep govt. from getting too much power, installed system of checks and balances. While most people thought only of giving more or less power to unicameral Congress, Madison and others saw need to split power in Federal govt. itself. Others still wanted Congress to be assembly of states, not of people. Compromised by creating two houses, one by populat ion (lower), the other by state (upper). This = the Great Compromise. Within 4 months of this compromise, all rest of Constitution = agreed on. Law of federal govt. would be supreme law of land. House of Rep's would initiate legislation, have 1 rep/30000 constituents, and be popularly elected for 2-year terms. President would be elected every 4 years by electoral college composed of as mny people from each state as rep's and senators from Congress. But did not contain any expressed guarantees of civil lib erties until 1st 10 amendments of Constitution. Convention adjourned on Sept 17. Although empowereed only to revise Articles, actually started from scratch. Bypassed state legislatures, which could stop ratification, and went to people to vote for it. Man y worked fervently to get it ratified, for otherwise, America might truly fall apart. 4 largest states, MA, PA, NY, and VA absolutely had to ratify. Small states generally ratified since they got lots of power. Others soon fell in line.
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