Chapter IV: The Establishment of West-European Leadership

--After Peace of Westphalia, stage = set for Dutch, English, French. But Dutch have too small population, England has domestic trouble. Thus, ascendancy of France.

--France = under Louis 14 (1661-1715). Made FRance the strongest of Europe. French culture = supreme.

--Big international question of time = fate of Spain. Spain = in economic decline, under inept, inbred Charles II. Question of fate of Spanish Netherlands, Spanish Italy, Spanish America. Precipitated war at his death in 1700.

--Louis = brother-in-law of Charles, intended to benefit by it. Expanionist policy followed two lines:

1) Push French borders east to Rhine, annex Sp. Netherlands (Belgium), Burgundy.

2) Obtain entire Spanih inheritance for himself.

--To reach these ends, he intrigued with many smaller powers. If successful, he would have created the univeral monarchy, dreaded by diplomats, under which one state could at will subordinate all others.

--Idea of Balance of Power

--2 conceptions:

1) static condition under which power = shared among several states.

2) dynamic condition when this equilibrium = disturbed. Then, all other state form coalition against strong state.

--Purpose of this politics = not to preserve peace, but to preserve sovereignty and independence of states of Europe. Effective in 17 and 18c. One reason for success = large number of state available for participation in coalitions. Also, because of military technology of the day, one state could make a large difference.

--Against Louis, main counterweight = William of Orange, a Dutchman.

--Dutch

--After initial disputes, officially adopted religious toleration. Refuge for many religious groups.

--Owned most of shipping of northern Europe, sailed everywhere, even India: East India Company. West India Company exploited riches of Spanish and Portugese Americas.

--Founded Bank of Amsterdam, with its guaranteed, stable currency. Made Amsterdam the financial center of all Europe. Burgher class= very rich, outdistanced nobility.

--Republican government, ruled by delegates from each of seven provinces, each jealous for its own independence. Each province had its own head stadholder, and seven unified power in one stadholder in time of war (usu. head of house of Orange).

--Politics = seesaw between burghers(pacifistic, aborbed in busines) and princes of Orange(military security). In years after Peace of Westphalia, peace prevailed, and burghers gained power. No stadholder elected for many years.

--Foreign affairs:

--England: 1651: Revolutionary government passed Navigation Act, first of many measures to build up British Colonial Empire. Provided that all goods imported into England must be brought in English ships, a direct threat to Dutch income. Thus, sever al inconclusive wars from 52-74.

--French: menace of Louis: in 1667, claimed Spnish Netherlands and Free Lands of Burgundy by alleging hereditary rights by his wife, and overrunning with army. Temporarily allied with England, Sweden in Triple Alliance<---gave pause to Louis, who wi thdrew from Netherlands. But in 1672, attacked Dutch, got three of seven Dutch provinces. Popular clamor for William to be elected stadholder. William tried to centralize government, put down feudal libertie of provinces, move toward absolute monarchy. Ev entually, allied with Denmark and Brandenburg, and even Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs. Peace signed in 1678, but Louis gets Burgundy. Dutch = intact.

--1689: William becomes king of England. Now able to bring Englnd against France.

--England

--In 1640's involved in civil war, fought between Calvinistic Protestants, or Puritans, and Moderates, called Anglicans. Puritans asserted rights of Parliament against mountig claims of Anglican royalty in England.

--Englnd in 17c: great time of expansion, colonization<--Americas, etc. Creation of their national culture, with Milton and Shakespeare. English literature = thus henceforth not as dependent on French as other on Continent. Economically, enterprising and affluent. Large manufacturer of woolens, under putting-out system. Increasing trade routes, but main wealth of England = still in land. Richest men = still the landlords.

--Background to Civil War: Unique aspect of Parliament's victory over royal authority = that it found a workable means of government after, did not dissolve into chaos, although strong governments of the time = those in which kingly powers increased. Government stayed strong, just went under Parliamentary control. Determined histroy of England and launched great movement of liberalism and representative institutions.

--After Eliz I died in 1603, throne went to James I, a philosopher of royal absolutism. Advocated divine right of kings. A Scot, could not communicate with English. In constant need of money: wars against Spain left large debt, and he = too extravag ent to live on his customary (medieval) sources of income. Parliament would grant neither James, nor his son, Charles I (1625-49), adequate $, because distrusted both. Many members of Parliament = Puritans, dissatisfied with Church of England. Also, many member = lawyers in fear for safety of common law of England. But all = property owners. All feared that if king could raise taxes on his own authority, all their property = in danger. In all, strong grounds for resistance. Means, too: Parliament = set up for resistance.

--1629: Charles and Parliament = in deadlock. King tried to rule without Parliament, which could legally meet only at his pleasure. Intended to give England an efficient govt under French model. But in policies, antagonized landlords, Puritans, all property owners. Tried to raise taxes for navy (ship money), failed. Scots rebelled in 1637 over attempts to impose Anglican religion in Scotland. Charles convened Parliament to raise funds, but when proved hostile to him, dissolved it for new elections. Same Parliament = returned<---sat from 1640-60, called the Long Parliament. L. Parliament, instead of giving funds for suppresion, used the rebellion to press its own revolutionary demands.

--1642: Parliament and king in open war. As price for support of Scottish armies, Parliament made Solemn League and Convenant, that Presbyterinism = only legal religion of England. Parliament = eventually victorious, but soon fell out with its own a rmy<--became center for more advanced democratic ideas. Many objected to any state rule of religion; rather, advocated toleration of all godly religions. Oliver Cromwell, leader of armies, decided Charles could not be trusted, tried to execute. But when P arliament hesitated, he started Pride's Purge, reducing Parliament to the Rump. The Rump put Charles to death in 1649. Britain proclaimed a republic, the Commonwealth, with Cromwell at head. Initiated harsh subjugation, Calvinization of Scotland and Irela nd. Party called the Levellers arose, appealing to natural rights and rights of Englishmen, for more nearly universal manhood suffrage, written constitution, and subordination of Parliament to a reformed voting body. But Cromwell failed to gain support of most English. As regicide and Puritain, lost support of royalists and Anglicns. Disagreed even with Rump, dissolved it. Tried to rule a Lord Protector, placed England under military rule of his major generals. 2 years after Cromwell died, Charles II = in vited to return.

--By terrors of Civil War, people of Englnd ceased to have political consciousness for over a century. Democratic ideas = generally rejected as levelling.

Britain: the Triumph of Parliament

--Restoration, 1660-88: The Later Stuarts

--This time, Charles = more careful not to antagonize Parliament, and people frightened by revolution = more warmly loyal to king.

--During Restoration, Parliament enacted far-reaching legislation: reformed laws for ownership of land, made it more closely resemble modern ownership. Landowning class became a propertied aristocracy. Gave new power to Parliament, new flexibility to government. Aristocracy cleared itself of customary restrictions, feudal payments to king, and also undertook to support the state by paying more taxes. In turn, English aristocracy got to run government for next century and half. Landowners ==> local ju stices. This regime = called "squirearchy."

--Dissenters, or Puritans, = discriminated against severely. Act of Settlement of 1662 decentralized administration of Poor Law to parishes, and immobilized much of population.

--King makes overtures to France and Catholicism. Suspected of "popery." Signed secret treaty of Dover of 1670 with Louis to join expected war againt Dutch. James, his brother and next heir, formally announced himself R.C. Charles tried to promote ge neral toleration, but generally feared that his aim = to promote R.C. Parliament countered with Test Act of 1673.

--Whigs, Tories generated:

Whigs: wanted to exclude James from throne by law. Suspicious of kings, Catholics, Frenchmen. Backed by middle class and merchants of London, drew main support from upper aristocracy, esp. those who might rule if king = ousted.

Tories: king's supporters. From the lesser aristocracy and gentry, suspicious of "moneyed" interest of London, felt strong loyalty to king and church.

--Revolution of 1688 (the Glorious Revolution)

--James II acceded in 1685, soon antagonized both Whigs and Tories. Very high-handedly tried to suspend Test Act, promote Catholics, despite Anglican sentiments of most of population. Aroused fears of popery. Took on philosophy of James I, that a kin g's will = law. In 1688, new son = baptized into Catholic Church. Whigs and Tories united to abandon James, offer throne to his Protestant daughter, Mary, and her husband, Will of Orange. Will and Mary invaded, ousted James, who fled to France. Louis made it one of his principal war aims to restore Catholic Stuarts in England. English, in turn, had added incentive to fight French: French victory ==> counterrevolution and royal absolutism, end to Revolution of 1688.

--1689: Parliament enacted a Bill of Rights: no law can = suspended by king; no taxes raised or armies maintained without Parliamentary consent; no subject arrested or detained without legal process. Willim accepted these as conditions to receiving c rown. Also passed Toleration Act, reducing religious tension.

--To prevent James from conquering Scotland, Scotlnd's government = merged with England's to make Britain. But Ireland = still mostly Catholic, and feared as center of Stuart/French intrigue. Hence, severe repression of Catholics.

--England brought great navy and finance to alliance against France. William's government borrowed > 1 mill pound to finance war, originating Bank of England and British national debt. Owners of liquid assets, having lent $ to government, had added i ncentive to preserve it. And since could now control government, they = willing to trust it with their $. Hence England = great financial power.

France of Louis XIV: The Triumph of Absolutism

--French Civilization: 19 million Frenchmen in a wealthy country with vast poverty. French cultural dominance in architecture, landscaping, literature, language, and manners.

--Development of French Absolutism:

--France had political freedom in feudal sense. About a dozen parlements, which = supreme law courts for their respective areas. Parlements upheld certain "fundamental" laws which they said king could not overstep, and often refused to enforce royal edicts they thought unconstitutional. Towns had charters of acknowledged rights. Institutional complication. Internal tariffs and tolls. No uniform taxing or money. This system = associated with disorder by events of Fronde. Fronde gave added incentive fo r absolutism in France.

--Fronde: broke out right after Peace of Westphalia, directed against Cardinal Mazarin, who = ruling in Louis' name. Parlement of Paris insisted on right to pronounce royal edicts unconsitutional. Fighting in Paris. Leadership = from nobles who hope d that, if king's power = kept down, they could govern themselves. Nobles called in Spanish troops, although at war with Spain, for support, but outraged many Frenchmen. Bourgeois Parlements withdrew support of nobles. Noble leaders had no systematic or c ontructive program; aimed only to depose unpopular Mazarin for themselves. Thus, French after Fronde welcomed strong power of king.

--Under Louis, modern state = advanced greatly. Worked against feudalism, though not with complete success. Claimed to posses, in himself, monopoly of legislative power and armed forces of kingdom. Government = aimed to give order and security within state, and raise, support, and control armies for use against other states.

--Idea that law and force in a country = concentrated in a king = central to doctrine of absolutism. King's will reflected God's will.

--Louis' most fundamental step = gaining control of army. Before, armies = almost mercenary. Once started, fighting = hard to stop, a in 30 Years' War. War = not a continuation of state policy. Louis saw to it that all armed people in France fought o nly for him. Produced peace and order in France, raised fighting power outside. Armies = no longer terror of people. Systematized, disciplined the army. Provided for troops, thus gaining their loyalty.

--Built Versailles to overawe country and foreigners. Resident nobles = absorbed in formalities, and thus, debilitated, and were always under royal eye.

--Filled government positions with newer members of upper class, who could aspire to no political influence independent of Louis. Temporarily destroyed the parlements, stifled old town liberties. Sent royal "intendants" across country to impose royal will.

--Economic and Financial Policies: Colbert

--King needed lots of $ to support all this. But tax collecting thru tax farming = inefficient, and crown could not tax nobility, which had the liuid wealth, because of their privileges. Put burden on poorer classes. Also, nobles, by not giving $ to government, could not control it. Rampant need for $ corrupted civic spirit, public life, and political aptitude of FRench people.

--Colbert, Louis' finance minister, tried to make France strong economically. Tried to apply mercantilism. Abolished local tariffs in area of the Five Great Farms. Built roads and canals. Regulation, subsidies, monopolies. Trade and manufacture = dev eloped under more direct government guidance than in England.

--Religion: Revocation of Edict of Nantes, 1685

--Louis thought religious unity necessary to strength and dignity of his rule. Increased pressure on Protestants in France, and eventually revoked Edict of Nantes, insituting official intolerance. Many Protestants fled abroad, esp. to Holland, German y, and America.

Wars of Louis XIV: the Peace of Utrecht, 1713

--Before 1700:

--1667: Louis struck to expand frontiers to Rhine and Alps. Blocked by Triple Alliance.

--1672: With support of Charles II, struck Dutch provinces of lower Rhine, raising up William of Orange. William countered Louis, limited him to taking Franche-Compt* from Spain.

--Otherwise reduced much of HRE states into puppets, slowly absorbed all territories around him. Catholic and Protestant enemies of Louis came together in 1686 in League of Augsberg. Members included HREmperor, kings of Spain and Sweden, Dutch Republ ic, and leader of some HRE states. When William acceded to throne of England, Britain joined too.

--War of League of Augsberg broke out in 1688: Both sides = exhausted, battles indecisive. War ended by restoring conditions before the war.

--War of Spanish Succession: Firt large war in which religion counted little, in which commerce and sea power = principal stakes, in which English money = used liberally in Continental politics, and first that can be called a "world war."

--Conflict = long expected. King of France and HREmperor = both brothers-in-law of Charles. Both had made various treaties in last years to split Spain between them to preserve balance of Power. But Charles left will that kingdom be kept intact, and that Louis should get the whole. United the thrones of Spain and France.

--William quickly forged Grand Alliance of 1701--included England, Holland, Portugal. Louis had Spain, which = generally loyal to king's will. Louis fought to keep the two crowns, to get Belgium, and at worst, in self-defense. Spain fought to uphold Charles' will, the unity of Spanish possessions, and even the integrity of Spain itself. Austrians fought to keep Habsburgs in Spain, to carry Austrian influence into Italy. Dutch fought for national security. English fought for the same, and to preserve Revolution of 1688, and esp., the National Debt, which the Stuarts would presumably repudiate if he entered power--thus, Whigs = the war party, and vaguely pro-Stuart Tories = willing for peace.

--War was long, since no sooner did one side gain temporary advantage over the other than it raised its demands too.

--Peace of Utrecht

--Peace finally achieved at Utrecht, 1713.

--Whigs, though, refused in House of Lords to ratify treaty. Thus, Queen Anne put several Tories in Lords to switch balance and pass the treaty.

--Austria got Spanish Mediterranean and Netherlands.

--France got Bourboun king into Spain, on condition that the two thrones should never = united. Spain retained American possessions. Spanish monarchy = shortly revived, with implementation of Louis' methods.

--France = temporarily weakened. War produced poverty, misery, depopulation, and exposed Louis to harsh criticism back home. Led to revival of aristocratic and parliamentary opposition. Gave Britain Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and disputed Hudson Bay territory. But France = not downed. Would quickly recover.

--Dutch got guarantees of security. But strained by war and outdistanced by British, Dutch would never play prominent role in politics again.

--British = main winners. At Gibraltar and Minorca, GBr = major Mediterranean power. Belgium = safe in Austrian hands. More American holdings. Got asiento, or right to slave trade to Spanish America from Spain. Assured of Protestant kings and Revolut ion of 1688.

--Territories = exchanged very freely in these treaties to preserve balance of power: no concept yet of nationality.

--France and GBr = now main players on European stage.

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