Chapter II: 1300-1560



#5: Black Death, about 1348.
--about half of population wiped out.
--basic fabric of society torn apart: everything unstable.
--labor shortage: more favorable terms of work: higher wages, herditary tenures on land for fixed sums of money.
--mass peasant insurrections: often questioned class structure
--Hundred Years' War: France and England, 1337.
France: ravaged by marauding bands of English troops and French adherents. Started to recover about 90 years later with Joan D'Arc.
England: As English longbows defeated mounted French knights, kind of popular patriotism started. Parliament widened powers as king needed money for battle. Great barons became unruly, quarreled among themselves, became factious.
1450-1485: War of Roses.

Papacy: decline of spiritual leadership --1300--Church at its height. But members becamee corrupt: thought Church existed for benefit of those who conducted its affairs. Out of touch with public opinion, controlled by self-perpetuating bureaucracy. Unable to reform itself.
--1290's--Philip the Fair of France, Edward I of England assessed taxes on Church lands. Pope Boniface VIII, in 1302, issued bull, most extreme of all assertions of papal supremacy: outside Church, there is no salvation, and every creature on earth is su bject to Roman pontiff.
--Philip sent troops to arrest Boniface, who soon died. French influence at Colege of Cardinals secured election of a pope subservient to French interests, residing at Avignon: Babylonian Captivity, 1308-1377. Other nations saw pope as tool of France, p restige of papacy badly dimmed.
--1378-- start of Great Schism. College of Cardinals elected two popes, one for Rome, the other for Avignon. Neither would resign.
--great spendour of Church. New taxes, increased revenue, great spending and glory. But Europe at this time traumatied with Black Death; people very heavily burdened. Growing complaint of worldliness of papacy. Uncertainty in Church, considered most s olid thing in universe, during time of great terror created symptoms of mass neurosis. No source of absolute religious authority. Disaffection with Church.
--Influential people called for Europe-wide council of Church, from which reforms could be pressed on reluctant popes.
--1409--Council called for resignation of two popes, elected a third in their place. But two refused, so three popes.
--1414-18--Council of Constance--desired complete overhaul of Church, supression of heresy, and 1 pope. Burned a few heretics, got Martin V as pope, but did not get first goal. Many people wanted council as permanent feature of Church to check pope, b ut once elected, Martin dissolved council, reaffirmed prerogatives of papacy.
--Church corrupted by money: common corruptions
--bribery
--simony--buying or selling a Church office
--churchmen living with mistresses.
--nepotism
--indulgences--"example" of St. Peter: a free gift in return for another. Fatally easy method of fund-raising.
--1438--French/Gallican Church secures right to choose its own churchmen.
--1449--Council of Basil--conciliar movement's end, papal triumph.
--Papacy passed to hands of more "cultivated" men--Renaissance popes-- very worldly, cultivated, secular.

#6: Italian Renaissance
Themes: Sense of history and identification with Greco-Romans; a new and constructive attitude toward the world, concern for civic and moral questions, decorum, personal character, education; especially identified with literature and the arts; affected li mited few, usu. upper class.
--Art = so hotly pursued that artisanship turned into art, delight in beautiful became common among classes.
--Town/city-states--Merchant oligarchies, each in its own city, pursued non-business interests unhampered. Either retained or usurped past nobility.
--Florence--Medici family--Giovanni (d.1429)--merchant/banker
--Cosimo (d.1464)--unofficial ruler
--Lorenzo the Magnificent (d.1492)--used great wealth to govern, remembered as connoisseur of arts and learning.
--hereditary grand dukes until line died out in 1737.
--New conception of man--World was so exciting that another need not be thought of. Life of activity, gregariousness was pried, not celibacy, monastic life. Idea of the time = man's tremendous powers.
--Praise of proper enjoyment of wealth
--New sense of public duty, civic consciousness as described by Cicero, other classic writers. Ethics independent of Christianity. Emphasis on outstanding achievements. Man of virtu--knew what he was doing, and using resources within himself, made b est of opportunities, hewed his way through the world, excelled in all he did. Expected in most agressive adult males.
--Change in art--more this-worldliness, sense of real time-space; mathematics of perspective. More non-religious buildings, substantial town houses built by great merchants, great civic buildings to express town's grandeur, proportioned for human c onvenience. Sculpture: preferred subject = humans, esp. great humans from mythology or present; use of nude more in keeping with Greek than Christian tradition. More detailed study of human form, subjects' personalities; less a portrayal of general truths than what actually met the eye. Less symbolic
--Reaction--Some troubled by too much worldliness. Savonarola.
--Humanism: Birth of literature
--Advent of people who saw writing as their life's work, who wrote for each other and larger public, used writing to deal with general questions, to examine their own states of mind, or just to achieve artistic effects, please or amuse their readers .
--Wrote a good deal in Latin. Complained that Latin became "monkish," bookish during Middle Ages; preferred the classical style of Romans. Preference for style confused with preference for material the different texts presented? Still, Romans and Gr eeks had great sense of style. If exists a cult of antiquity, it is because saw kindred spirits in it.
--Much writing also in vernacular, esp. Florentine dialect. Standardized Italian as Florentine version.
--Petrarch--1304-74--first man of letters? Anticipated the more fully developed humanism that was to come. Really established moral philosophy.
--Boaccaccio--contemporary of Petrarch--Decameron, in Italian.
--Bruni--1369-1444--Saw past clearly as past, present as present, different from, but related to past. Introduced new division of historical periods. Used history for political purpore: showed Florence's long tradition of freedom, values, and achiev ements worthy of defending from enemies. Heightened sense of civic consciousness, group identity; aroused men to life of commitment and participation. "New" type of history.
--Valla--one of founders of textual criticism. Observed that languages' characteristic words and expressions change with time. Used such knowledge of Latin to show Donation of Constantine was false. In Donation, Emperor Constantine supposedly rescin ded authority of Western Church to Rome. Papacy's claim to legitimacy.
--New schooling
--Idea of putting different groups of levels of accomplishment into different classes. Taught Latin and Greek, to help with native tongue and to study Classics--produced moral impact, balanced character
--Personal style, civilied deportment--defore, Europeans = like big children. Italians first taught polite habits. Books of etiquette--Castiglione's Book of the Courtier. Sprezzatura.
--Politics
--Produced no great idea by which peoples could be held together. Too individualistic. Merchants, bankers, courtly classes could not fight for themselves, could not get citizens to fight for them. Instead, paid condottieri to fight for them: changin g sides, raising prices, etc.
--Politics became tabgled web, full of subterfuge and conspiracy, in which men could demonstrate virtu. "Italian cunning." City-states jockeyed with one another, amintained balance of power.
--Machiavelli's The Prince, 1513--first purely secular treatise on politics. "Emancipated" politics from theology and moral philosophy. Described what rulers actually did. Did not condone their actions; instead, thought such conduct = bad. Just that this = how successful rulers behaved; what really happens is that effective rulers and governments act only in their own political self-interest. Saw times becoming more secular, with building of states and state authority a goal needing no other justifi cation.
--City-states not united enough to repel invasions of great monarchies in north:
--French cross Alps--1494
--Spanish, German, Italian troops pillage Rome--1527
#7: Renaissance north of Alps

Themes: less dramatic break, more religious than in Italy. Humanism within Christian context, university scholasticism more acceptable. Blend of old and new. Wittenberg.
--Germany--in great religious upheaval, a center of European life. Economically in the lead: German bankers like Fuggers (1500's) controlled more $ than any other in Europe. Mining in development. 1450's: Guttenberg produced first books with moveable type , with all social consequences. Western fringe produced Flemish masters; south produced Durer, Holbeins. Many great scientists who laid foundations for present knowledge: Copernicus (1473-1543). Dr. Faustus--rumored to have sold soul for illicit knowledge . Symbol for inordinate striving of modern man.
--Mysticism, lay religion
--Religion took on more mystical, somberly moral tone.
--Essence of mysticism = in the belief, or experience, that the individual soul could in perfect solitude commune directly with God. No need of reason, words, other people, sacraments, or even Church. Did not rebel against Church: accepted its patter n of salvation, but offered a deeper religion in which the Church as a social institution had no place. Individual soul transcended Church--influence on Luther.
--People stirred by religion would, in M. Ages, take vows and become priests. Such sincere people would reform church from within when nec. But such people increasingly became often influential religious laymen, humanists, disturbed with Church's gro wing abuses.
--Lay religion especially active in Netherlands--Brotherhood of the Common Life--lived communally, but took no vows, wore regular clothes, free to leave at will. Worked at relieving poor and teaching.
--Erasmus of Rotterdam--1466-1536
--Greatest of Christian humanists--almost wholy unpolitical. Keenly aware of need for clergy to reform, but attacked only abuses of Church; did not question its ultimate authority. Put faith in education, enlightened discussion, gradual moral impr ovement. Encouraged study of Bible as agents of personal reform. Advocated mildness, reasonableness, tolerance, restraint, love of peace, etc.
--In Praise of Folly--satirized all worldly pretensions and ambitions, especially those of the clergy.

#8: New Monarchies, c. 1500
Themes: Founded institutions of modern state. These states, more than anything else, determined course of religious revolution. Tried to impose some kind of civil peace to stop war, civil war, feudal rebellion, banditry afflicting Europe. New Monarchs off ered monarchy as guarantee of law and order. Claimed hereditary monarchy = legitimate form of government, which all should accept without complaint: even if successor might be stupid, would be better than civil war. Often enlisted support of middle class, which = sick of instability, and thus, unfavorable market conditions, caused by feudal nobles' wars. Townspeople = willing to let king subdue or even ignore parliaments, which = too often strongholds for unruly barons. If collected taxes, got finances in order, could organize army to counter nobility's power. With pike and longbow, could defeat horsemen, knights. Made use of "Roman law": concept that king incorporated will and welfare of people in his own person. King could then make law by just willing it.
--England--Wars of Roses--great baronal families seriously weakened each other, to great inconvenience of king and citizenry. Henry VII (1485-1509)--ended infighting by uniting two competing households in marriage of himself and his wife. United two house s into house of Tudor (1485-1603). Forbade great lords from maintaining private armies bearing the lords' insignias. Established royal court of law for witnesses of violation of public peace, so need not fear revenge from great lords if tell truth.
--France--Louis XI (1461-1483). 1st kings = just around Paris. Increased territory through intrigue, schemes, conquests, etc. Louis XI got more territory, built up royal army to subdue rebellious nobles. Far greater powers than Tudors to tax without parli ament. 1516 Concordat of Bologna: 1438 "Pragmatic Sanction" rescinded; agreed to pay pope's "annates," or money income, while king could appoint clergy. Ability to appoint = one reason why never tempted to turn Protestant.
--"Spain"--actually, Aragon and Castile, personally "united" by marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469. A personal union only: there were still 2 monarchs. Americas belonged to Castile in 1492. Only 1 common institution: Inquisiti on. Cardinal Ximenes, shortly before 1500, cleansed Church of Spain from all corruptions, abuses. New Monarchy took religious bent. Unification = around Church. Insisted on religious conformity. Made efforts at political centralization largely through off ices of Church. "Spanishness" = Catholicity. Although most tolerant European nation before, wanted to expel Jews and Moriscos. Torture for confession. Life od Spain = one giant crusade. Conversion of American Indians. Stern Apostle of Catholic reform.
--Holy Roman Empire--basically, Germany. 3 kinds of states: (1) princely states (duchies, etc.), (2) ecclesiastical states (bishoprics, etc.), and (3) imperial free cities--about 50: small in size, but dominated economy. States, over the years, prevented HREmperor from infringing on local liberties, since right of office = vested in 7 electors. 1452: chose Archduke of Austria, Habsburg, to be HREmperor. Re-elected almost continuously until 1806.
--Habsburg emperors tried to introduce centraliing principles of New Monarchy in entire Empire. Married way into inheriting Austria, Spain, bits of Italy, and Burgundy (Netherlands and Free County of Burgundy). Charles V (1519-1556) also elected HREmp eror, so symbolic head of Germany as well. Turks = also pushing through Hungary and Bohemia: to gain allies, enjoined Charles' brother Ferdinand to become their king. Contemporaries cried that Europe = threatened with "universal monarchy."

#9: Protestant Reformation
Three main factors: (1) extreme dissatisfaction of peasants with clergy: saw them as part of oppressive ruling class. Religious ideas = mixed with hatred of entire social order. (2) middle classes of various European cities: wanted to manage their own rel igions like their own businesses, believing that Church = too embedded in feudal, baronal, etc. system far from themselves. Roots of Calvinist church. (3) kings and nobles, who long disputed with Church on property, taxes, legal jurisdiction, political in fluence. Each wanted to be master of own territory. (2) & (3) won many victories, but (1) = repressed.
Protestants = revolutionary because protested not only abuses of Cath. Church, but also its very existence & authority. Only in 1648 did Cath's and Prot's learn to coexist.
--Luther--Doctrine of justification on faith alone, rather than "good works." Good Works = consequence and external evidence of inner grace, but not its cause. Cannot earn God's grace, since you = so sinful.
--1517--On seeing friar selling indulgences, posted 95 Theses on door of castle church at Wittenberg.
--Ultimate authority = yourself, your own interpretations of the BIBLE. Denies ultimate authority of pope or church. Declared that clergy = not different from laity, denounced reliance on fasts, pilgrimages, saints, etc. Rejected belief in pugatory. Reduced 7 sacraments to 2. Rejected transubstantiation, but said that God = still somehow in bread and wine. Wanted clergy to marry. To force reform, called on temporary powers of New Monarchies to assume control over religion, which they gladly did.
--Excommunicated. Charles V had to catch him and suppress heresy. Condemned at Diet of Worms, but Elector of Saxony and other N. German princes harbor him.
--Lutheranism sparked national upheaval. Muddled with social and political revolution. Peasants, hearing that anyone could see for himself what = right, revolted in great rebellion of 1524, but for social/economic ideals. Luther = disgusted, calls fo r swift, brutal repression, which = done. Other groups = called collectively Anabaptists.
--John of Leyden led 10,000's of wierd ealots into Munster in 1534, took over the city. Besieged, overthrown. John died in torture.
--Luther, horrified with how religious revolution got mixed with social, modified his position. Restricted right of private judgment, allowed for established clergy as teachers of laity, submissiveness to state: Christian liberty = in the soul, purel y spiritual. In worldly matters, owe allegiance to temporal states. Came to hold state in almost religious awe.
--Charles V tried to uphold Catholicism. But states of Empire, fearing loss of local liberty, saw in Charles' suppression a threat to their own freedom. Thus, demanded right to determine their own religion. Locally, became totally Lutheran. Confiscat ed monastic lands, got lots of wealth, invested interest in success of Lutheranism. Formed League of Schmalkald, allied with Francis I of France. Harried by internal factioning and approach of Turks, Charles tried concessions, but didn't work. League, wit h France, went to war against Emperor in 1546. Germany fell into anarchy.
--War concluded at Peace of Augsburg in 1555. No provision for Calvinists. Complete victory for Lutherans: allowed states to be Lutheran or Catholic, according to ruler. Almost evenly half-half: north mostly Protestant, south mostly Catholic. But Lut heranism = too closely associated with established states to spread far. Mostly Germany, Scandinavia, and Baltics. Calvinism = more successful.
--Calvin--1536: Institutes of the Christian Religion. In Latin, the international language, addressed to all the world. Appealed to human reason itself. Anyone dissatisfied with R.C. Church could adopt his principles for his own use.
--Doctrinal difference: communion = just a pious, symbolic act. Made far more of predestination: some = saved, some damned from before birth. Since pessimistic of human nature, those saved = relatively few. Instead of bringing fatalism, inspired grea t zeal to be on God's good side. Militant, uncompromising, perfectionist. Refused to recognize subordination of church and state, or right of any government to lay down laws for religion. Instead, true Christians should Christianize the state. Make societ y the ideal religious community, including devout laymen in control of church affairs.
--Geneva--Calvin's model community. Strict rule: everything light, loose, frivolous suppressed. Sermons = intellectual rather than aesthetic. Chanting instead of hymns. Regulate church by Bible. No more willing than Luther to tolerate doctrines more radical than his own. Became the Protestant Rome.
--Versus democracy: aristocratic in that let those few who sensed themselves saved to rule the community. Democratic in that held sphere of state and public life subject to moral judgment. Any form of honest work = pleasing in sight of God.
--England
--Broke with RC Church before adopting any Protestant principles. Henry VIII (1509-1547) prided himself in his orthodoxy, was called defender of the faith. But had no male heir. Wanted marriage to Catherine of Aragon, aunt of Charles V, annuled, so c ould marry Anne Boleyn. But pope wouldn't, lest offend Charles. Thus, Henry in 1534 split from RC Church: Parliament passed Act of Supremacy, declaring English king to be head of Church and clergy in England. All subjects = required, if asked, to swear al legiance to Henry, rejection of pope. Closed all monasteries in England, recovered to crown. Gave land as gifts to new landed gentry, which stayed firm supporters of house of Tudor and English national church, whatever its doctrines.
--Henry did not want to change doctrines at all. Just wanted to head English Catholic Church. But many people = under influence of Protestant ideas, with hopes up for change by recent split from RCC.
--Son, Edward VI, really started up Protestantism, since was surrounded by Protestant advisors. But died in 1553. Succeded by Mary Tudor (Bloody), who tried to re-Catholocize England, but only estranged the people from it more. 1554: she married Phil ip of Spain. English hated Spain, and intense Catholocism it represented. Performed mass execution. Died 1558, succeded by Elizabeth. Under her, Anglican Church took on its own form.
--All English subjects required to belong to it. Organized like a Lutheran Church. A state church. Retained all the physical possessions, internal organizations of the medieval. Definitely Protestant in religious practice. In practice, tried to make doctrines broad and ambiguous to accomodate many shades of belief. Exists, though, a high-church element emphasizing Catholic rather than Protestant.
--Christendom = disintegrating by 1560. Protestants differed among each other, but held many of same ideals. Was one of main motives for turning Protestant economic?: governments quickly seized monastic lands, nations quickly switched to capitalistic economies.

#10: Counter (Catholic) Reformation
--Charles V tried to stop Germany's conversion to Protestantism by calling for a council to remove abuses of church, take away their justification for turning away. But French king, to make Germany factious, used influence in papacy to prevent council, en couraged German Protestants.
--Finally, Council of Trent, 1545-1563. Shaped destiny of modern Catholicism. Poorly attended, but voted on the issues anyway. 2 goals: statement of Catholic doctrine, reform of abuses of church. Declared justification by works and grace, enumerated and d efined 7 sacraments, vehicles of grace independent of spiritual state of those who received them, priesthood = apart from laity, procedures of confessional and absolution clarified, transubstantiation reaffirmed, tradition and Scripture = equal sources of Catholic faith. Celibacy, monasticism, and existence of purgatory upheld. Veneration of saints, use of images, relics approved as spiritually useful and pious actions. Theory and correct practice of indulgences restated. Provided for truly educated clerg y.
--Line of Renaissance popes = succeeded by reforming popes, who effected these changes. Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556): most famous schoolmasters of Europe. Taught Classic Latin, humanism, gentlemanly deportment. Confessors to kings, often involved in political intrigue. International missionary force for reconversion of Protestants. Index of Prohibited Books. Spanish Inquistion enforced conformity.
Back to Cho Index