Chapter 21: Empire Beyond the Seas

The Period of Withdrawl

--Until 1867, Isolationism: foregin involvement = bad, since would involve ruling others without their consent, which is contrary to American principles. "Continentalism": nation should not expand beyond its continental boundaries.

--Preoccupation with internal affairs, like economics, prosperity, etc.

--But still, some pursuance of American interests abroad: prestige, markets, and security, some trade treaties with foreign nations. But mostly interested in development of internal empire of West, and economic colonialism of the South, other domesti c affairs. Armed forces and merchant marine atrophied. Free security from European turbulence by Atlantic allowed American bravado all out of proportion with its actual military power.

--A few island, trading disputes with European powers. Very minor.

Manifest Destiny, New Style:

--Causes:

--Social Darwinism, cult of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority that made Americans think themselves destined by natural selection to dominate their inferior brothers.

--Protestant missions abroad. Required the building of a better navy. Several modern warships = built under Naval Act of 1890. USA soon placed third among world's naval powers. Navy required new coaling stations, bases. Mahan's The Interest of Americ a in Sea Power showed primacy, great importance of naval power in nation's security.

--Men in power = now not exposed to horrors of Civil War, and = willing for another war. When saw European nations carving up the rest of the world, they wondered whether America = losing out, whether America could protect her interests and markets i f it did not enter the imperialism and take up the "white man's burden." Also, Europe might next try to carve up S. America, threaten US's security.

--Depression of 90s aroused interest in foreign markets that could start up industry again.

American Bellicosity:

--James G. Blaine, Secretary of State under Harrison, broke the isolationism. Blaine = concerned with Latin America: start trade with sister republics, get naval bases in Carribean, build an isthmian canal. Urged a conference of all American republics , but could only set up an international information center.

--In early 90s, new martial spirit among American people called JINGOISM. Irresponsible talk of war. When 2 American sailors killed in Chile (1891) in a barroom brawl, President Harrison invited Congress to war. But Chile�made apologies, indemnitites, and things cooled. Still, war sentiment rose, fanned by jingo editors. Most Americans thought Civil War an exception to the rule that war = generally glamorous.

--Venezuela: British Guiana and Venezuela = quarrelling over border territory laden with gold. When Venezuelans suggested that British desires = threat to Monroe Doctrine, anti-Anglo feeling spread. Cleveland demanded that Britain stop, submit the con flict to arbitration. Britain refused. Cleveland asked Congress to appoint a commision to draw boundary and enforce its decision at all cost. War sentiment mounted. But Britain backed down: it = suddenly in South African conflict, and needed all friends i t could get. Result = more American nationalist feeling and better Anglo-American friendship.

The Hawaiian Question:

--Cleveland = firm against Hawaiian annexation.

--Hawaiian industry = SUGAR, almost all of which = sold to USA under special no-tariff agreement. But when USA granted no tariffs on sugar to other competing nations, Hawaii = in economic crisis, and then a political crisis. Local rulers briefly tried to gain independence. But US navy browbeat local rulers into submission. But again, Cleveland refused Hawaii's annexation. Only when war with Spain totally re-opened expansionism was Hawaii annexed (1898).

The Cuban Crisis:

--Civil war broke out, 1895, partly due to increased tariff on Cuban sugar, which hurt their economy. Cubans and Spanish used savage methods on each other. Entire populations = forced into barbed wire detention areas, which soon became filthy, and wit h little food, disease-ridden. Many people died. American press exaggerated atrocities, but not greatly, to American public, which = soon outraged. Also, sufferings = from a people who = struggling for independence from an unjust European empire. Great sy mpathy. Americans = ready to fight.

--American "yellow press": led by two New York newspapers in circulation war, each searching for sensationalism, which both found in Cuba. Papers = strong interventionists.

--Imperialists wanted more territory. Religious people and humantiarians wanted to end Spanish atrocities.

American Intervention:

--Cleveland, though, = strong opponent of intervention. But in 1896, he underwent change, almost rationalized a possible US involvement to try to keep Republicans intact.

--First incident: stolen letter from Spanish minister in Washington insulted President McKinley, and said that the Cubans should = forcibly suppressed. Tone of letter suggested that previous Spanish attempts at negotiation = insincere.

--Second incident: Battleship Maine = sunk in Havana. Jingo press instantly latched on, and Congress voted huge $ appropriations for possible involvement. McKinley presented Spain with a peace settlement: Spain abandons its reconcentration policy imme diately, armstice, and peace negotiations through offices of USA. But if Spain rejected proposal, it would face disastrous war; if accepted, its prestige at home plummets, and could face internal revolution. Spain agreed only partially: would not concede Cuban independence. But McKinley wanted this most of all, and this precipitated the war.

--Senate issued Tellet Amendment that USA would not annex or govern Cuba after war, but would leave control to the people. Thus, amendment proclaimed American righteousness. But amendment also left room for American control and annexation of certain o ther islands.

The Little War, 1898

--George Dewey's dazzling victory at Manila Bay: sunk entire Spanish fleet there, and thus, entire Spanish navy in Pacific.

--But American troops for Cuba = hopelessly prepared for tropical Cuba. Soldiers killed more by disease than fighting. Food and sanitation lacking. Newspapers exaggerated all this sensationally.

--But Spanish = even worse. Spanish navy = promptly bottlenecked in Santiago Harbor, and American expeditionary force soon landed, including T.R.'s Rough Riders. With help of Spanish blunders, Americans soon surrounded Santiago. Meanwhile, Spanish nav y steamed out, promptly defeated with honor. Spanish = soon faced with inevitable defeat, and surrendered.

--Puerto Rico soon taken. Spanish there deserted en masse. Much cleaner operation.

--In Philippines, Spanish soon surrendered Manila.

--Spanish sued for peace. Immediate cease-fire agreed. Cuba = given to America, and Philippines = put up to peace conference to meet in Paris.

McKinley and His Decision

--Philippines = deliberately left open. The islands scarcely figured in war aims of most Americans. To seize them without consent of inhabitants = contrary to representative government America supposedly embodied. To seize Philippines = to profane hum anitarian notions that supposedly started the war. But imperialists wanted islands badly.

--Hawaii: Hawaii = argued essential halfway station to Philippines, and vice-versa. McKinley annexed Hawaii in 1898.

--Business: Once news of victory came, business switched positions, came to support expansion as means to new markets, and better stations on way to trade with other nations, ie Philippines to China.

--Religious/Humanitarian = pro-expansion, since would presumably civilize these areas, possibly convert the natives. And again, racial determinism offered by the "white man's burden," Social Darwinism, etc.

--Spanish negotiators capitulated Philippines in return for $20 mill.

The Debate on the Philippines

--Treaty committed USA to imperialism in Orient and Caribbean.

--Senate had to debate the treaty, and debate revealed more aspects of the annexation. Anti-Imperialism league = promptly formed from respectable members. Twain dubbed the pro-annexationists the "Blessings of Civilization Trust."

--Arguments against Philippine annexation: would lead to war with Japan, counter to principle of no government without consent of governed, Asiatic peoples = too different culturally to be assimilated, inconsistent with isolationism of Monroe Doctrine .

--Arguments for: naval strategy, world power, commercial interests, plus McKinley's duty, destiny, humanitarianism, and religious mission.

--Day before the vote, news arrived that Filipinos had arisen against the Americans. No more doubt of their desire for freedom: USA = now in Spain's position.

--US Army = still in control of Cuba, and would not withdraw until Cubans included in their constitution a permanent treaty with the USA, called the PLATT Amendment, which limited power of Cuba to make treaties, borrow $, or change certain other polic ies. But most important, it provided that USA could intervene at will to preserve Cuban independence and life, property, and individual liberty. Cuba submitted.

Beyond the Philippines

--New trade opportunities in Orient by way of Phil. and Hawaii = threatened by dissolution of China and its partition by imperialist powers. Thus, Sec. of State Hayes introduced "Open Door" policy: 1) no power would interfere with trading rights of an other within his sphere of influence 2) Chinese tariff duties should = collected by Chinese officials 3) no power should levy discriminatory harbor dues or railroad charges within his sphere. Not many agreed, response = underwhelming.

--Boxer Rebellion, 1900: Hayes tried to prevent spread of war, limit extent of intervention, assure rapid withdrawl of troops, prevent extension of spheres of influence, and keep down punitive demands on China. Succeded in last respect.

McKinley's Vindication

--Bryan's anti-imperialism took him out of bidding for Presidency. Empire = no longer a threat to tradition: rather, a fait accompli to which people = getting accustomed.

--USA = increasingly brutal in suppression of Phil insurgence under Emilio Aguinaldo. Little better, if at all, than the Spanish. But this = far away from America, and people did not pay it much attention. Besides, increasing prosperity at home, stimu lus of war kept attention at home. Populist party died with increasing farmer content with new prices, etc.

--McKinley = associated with this return to prosperity, reelected with T.R. Democrats turned to Bryan, who ran on anti-imperialism and free silver, both dead issues.