Chapter 20: The Second World War

--Peace impossible without willing acceptance of certain conditions, prevailing world order. In 1930s, neither Germany, Japan, Italy, or USSR = content. Instead, revisionist, dissatisfied. First 3 = willing to wage war to change things.

--On other hand, GBr, France, and USA = satisfied. But also lost faith in conditions and = unwilling to wage war to maintain the system. Much of Peace of Versailles = dead letter.

#105: The Weakness of the Democracies: Again to War

The Pacifism and Disunity of the West

--Western democracies = under profound pacifism: willing to maintain peace regardless of consequences. WWI had been a mistake: little or nothing = gained from it. War = waged in capitalist, industrialist interest. Germans = not really the cause of the war. Treaty of Versailles = too harsh. Vigorous nationalities like Germans and Italians need room for expansion. Democracy = not the best for all nations. "It takes two to make a quarrel": there could be no war if one side refused to fight. Massive loss of life from the war: the "flower of England."

--France: Security with minimal manpower in Maginot line. Depression France torn by internal class conflict, fascist agitation. Many to right feared, hated the Republic, Popular Front, saw them as threat of social revolution. Thus, no longer nationali sts, but admired fascists in Germany, Italy, and would take no action against them. Left looked to USSR.

--France = ideologically too divided in 30s to take a firm foreign policy, and all took comfort in Maginot Line.

--GBr, USA: Great fear of horrors of another war. Many students formed peace movements. Difficult for governments to back foreign policy with firm domestic support in matters favoring either USSR or Hitler/Mussolini. Vociferous opponents/supporters fr om left and right.

--GBr government tried to be noncommittal. Tried to satisfy some of fascists more "legitimate" demands. Prime Minister Chamberlain = prime architect of appeasement policy.

--USA government in practice followed rigid isolation. Strong isolationalist bloc in Congress passed neutrality legislation, cutting economic ties with European belligerents. It = thought that USA = drawn into WWI from economic involvement. But ironi cally, the aggressors = the ones to benefit from this policy.

--USSR: Revisionist. Dissatisfied with E. European borders, Russian territorial losses. Resented the cordon sanitaire. Feared, dreaded a capitalist invasion, both from traditional xenophobia and Marxist doctrine of capitalist belligerence. Kremlin ala rmed by threats of Nazi aggression. Primarily interested in collective security, international aggression against aggression. Joined League of Nations, 1934. Told Communists abroad to cooperate with socialists, liberals. Offered assistance in checking fas cist aggressors. But many distrusted the USSR's intentions, or thought that Stalin's purges left the Soviets weak, undependable as allies.

The March of Nazi and Fascist Aggression

--Hitler took advantages of weaknesses in this system. To wreck the treaty system, he used gradual encroachment. He would raise hell, threaten war, take a little, and declare that it = all he wanted, and let Allies naively hope that Hitler = now satis fied. Each time, French and English saw no alternative but to let him have his way.

--1933: took Germany out of League and Disarmament Conference.

--34: nonaggression pact with Poland, long France's ally. Tried to seize Austria, but Mussolini threatened with his own armies.

--35: Open rearmament. Italian, French, English protest, but do nothing.

--36: "Justifying" with Franco-Soviet pact, Hitler moved into Rhineland. Some talk of French resistance. But although German armies = still weak, considering withdrawal, French could not take decisive action. Instead, refused to act without British s upport. British refused to prevent German occupation of German soil.

--38: Germans move into Austria. Anschluss, or unification of Germany, = completed.

--Italians = dissatisfied with Treaty of Versailles: got none of promised foreign territories in secret treaty with GBr. Ethiopia = still independent. In 1935, Italy goes to war with Ethiopia. League of Nations called for economic sanctions on Italy. In France, though, some supported fascists, and British feared that if Italians got too irritated, they might precipitate a general European war. Italians meanwhile took and assimilated Ethiopia, 1936. When Ethiopian Emperor Selassie protested to League, League = paralyzed.

The Spanish Civil War, 1936-39

--1931: A mild revolution deposes Bourbons, establishes a Spanish republic. Republic undertook program of socio-economic reform. Enacted anticlerical legislation to help break old power of the Church: Church and state separated, schools secularized. S ome large estates broken up, given to peasants.

--Reform = not radical enough to earn support of left, but was enough to antagonize the right.

--1933: Government falls into hands of right, who ruled with ineffective and unpopular ministries.

--1936: New general elections. All of left unites under Popular Front, win over right. But soon after, a group of military men mount insurrection against republican government under General Francisco Franco.

--Civil War: devastating, extreme cruelty. For 3 years, republicans held out, but eventually fell to Franco.

--1939: Franco establishes authoritarian, fascist-type rule.

--International scene: Britain and France, fearing involvement, refused to sell arms to either side. USA played neutral, embargoed. But Germany and Italy supported Franco, denounced republicans as tools of Bolshevism, while USSR supported republicans, denounced rebels as agents of international fascism.

--Fascist bombings of Madrid, Guernica, and Barcelona horrified the democratic world. Germans and Italians sent many troops. Joint involvement solidified Italian-German alliance: entered into Rome-Berlin axis, 1936. Also, Japan joined axis with "Anti -Comintern" pact, ostensibly to oppose communism, but actually for diplomatic alliance by which each nation, with allies, might better push its own interests.

--Thousands of international volunteers poured in to support the republicans.

--Thus, Spanish Civil War became battle of contending ideologies, and split world into fascist and anti-fascist camps.

--In 1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China under pretext of avenging a petty incident. Japanese soon controlled most of China. Chinese got supplies only with difficulty. League ineffectually condemned the invasion. But USA, since no war = declared, extended loans to Chinese. But by same token, Japanese purchased many crucial industrial supplies.

The Munich Crisis: The Climax of Appeasement

--Germans greatly strengthened by '38 annexation of Austria: addition of 6 million Germans. But still existed 3 million Germans in Czechoslovakia, discontented with new minority position and subtle discrimination against them. Indeed, there was no maj ority ethnic group in Czechoslovakia.

--Czechoslovakia = strategic keystone to Europe. Firmly allied with France, who guaranteed protection from German invasion. Formed "Little Entente" with Rumania and Yugoslavia to maintain boundaries in that part of Europe. Had good army and important munitions industry. Strongly fortified against Germany along border. But on annexation of Austria, Hitler surrounded Czechoslovakia in a vise. To Germans, region of Bohemia-Moravia, which = 1/3 German, = a needless bulge into 3rd Reich.

--Sudeten Germans, with agitation from Hitler, demanded unification with Germany. In 1938, rumors of impending German invasion, although false, prompted GBr, French, and Soviets to issue warnings. Czechs mobilized. Hitler = forced to issue assurances. But French and British = terrified by their narrow escape from war. French acquiesced leadership to GBr, and Czechs accepted British mediation. Later that year, Czechs basically conceded regional autonomy to Sudeten Germans.

--But Hitler cried that plight of Czech Germans = intolerable. Soviets demanded a firm stand against Hitler, but French and British = unsure whether Hitler = bluffing: could or could not back down in face of firm opposition. That fall, Chamberlain fl ew to Germany to negotiate, but Hitler raised his terms so high that he could not accept. As mobilization inc., tension rose, war seemed inevitable. But Hitler suddenly summoned French and British, and Italians to Germany. GBr and France accepted Hitler's terms, pressured Czechs into compliance. France repudiated its treaty obligation to protect Czechs and abandoned Little Entente.

--Germany would annex the portion of Bohemia that = mostly German. But fringe also contained mountain ranges and fortifications that = crucial to Czech defense against German attack. Thus, Czechs = basically defenseless. Germans "promised" to uphold integrity of a Czechoslovakia they had just butchered. But British and French = relieved greatly, thought that Hitler would finally = appeased.

--Reasons for French, British weakness: French and British = behind in military mobilization, not prepared for confrontation. Willing to buy peace even at high cost: did not believe they = dealing with a blackmailer whose price would always rise. Thi s acquiescence = application of WWI principle of national self-determination to Germany. Germans had right to all they hitherto demanded. Also, if Germany and USSR eventually faced off, fascism and communism might destroy each other.

--Poland and Hungary soon butchered Czechoslovakia further. Seized territories that = ethnically their own.

The End of Appeasement

--In March 1939, Hitler took all of Bohemia-Moravia, the really Czech part of Czechoslovakia. Thus, Czechoslovakia = dissolved. Also seized some adjoining territories from other nations. France and GBr horrified: now saw that Hitler would stop at noth ing, could never be appeased. Also, Mussolini took Albania in April.

--Western powers begin mobilization. GBr guaranteed Poland, Rumania, and Greece assurances against German invasion. GBr also tried to form anti-German alliance with USSR, but Poles and Rumanians refused Russian troops on their soil, even if to prevent German invasion.

--Soviets = insulted. It = increasingly apparent that British and French just wanted USSR to take brunt of German attack. Affronted that GBr sent only lesser officials to negotiate with USSR while Chamberlain flew to Germany. Thus, USSR openly signed non-aggression and friendship pact with Hitler, 1939. Also, secretly agreed that, in any future territorial rearrangement, USSR and Germany would divide Poland, and USSR would dominate Baltics. Soviets in turn promised to stay out of any war with Germany and Poland or Western democracies.

--World = stupefied. Communism and Nazism, ideological opposites, = united. Pact = seen as signal for war: all last-minute negotiations failed. Germans invaded Poland, Sept. 1. French and British declare war on Germany, Sept. 3.

#106: The Years of Axis Triumph

Nazi Europe, 1939-1940: Poland and the Fall of France

--Poland quickly overrun by Blitzkrieg, or combined lightning attack of armored divisions and massive Luftwaffe support. USSR moved into eastern half two weeks after German invasion. USSR also established fortified bases in Baltic states, and forced F inland to cede territories: USSR = expelled from League for this aggression.

--West = quiet. No action: "phony war." Still hoped that real battle might be averted, encouraged by Hitler's peace overtures. But that winter, Hitler put his troops through special training.

--1940: Germans attacked, took Norway, Denmark. Main blow: Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, even France. Nothing could resist. Germans struck through Ardennes Forest, thought by French impenetrable by tanks. Thus, Germans bypassed best French and Bri tish troops, which = amassed in central Belgium, where they thought Hitler would attack. Drove deep into N. France, cut off Allies in Belgium. Belgian King sued for armistice, much of French armies surrendered. British evacuated heroically at Dunkirk, but at price of leaving behind almost all of their equipment. By June 22, France = conquered. World shocked. Some French fled to Britain, established Free French movement under de Gaulle. Others stayed, formed Resistance movement.

--2/3 of France = occupied by Germany. Lower third = now the Third Republic, w/ capital at Vichy and headed by Marshall Petain and Pierre Laval. Republic = dead, and leaders of Vichy France brought in Nazi regime.

--Soon after fall of France, Mussolini attacks France as well. Also attacks Greece and Africa against British. Duce now tied his fate with the Fuhrer's. Since Germany = emphatically the senior partner with Italy, since = on good terms with Franco in S pain, and since USSR = neutral, they now controlled the continent. Now organized a new "continental system," called the "new order": made plans to govern, exploit, and coordinate the resources, industry, and labor of Europe. Intense exploitation of subjec ts for military equipment, and impressment of millions into army.

The Battle of Britain and American Aid

--Again, in 1940, only GBr = left in Europe to fight the Continent. Churchill becomes Prime Minister, appeals to USA for equipment; then, he says, GBr will finish the job.

--But American opinion = excitedly divided since 1939. Isolationists wanted neutrality: thought that Europe = hopeless, Hitler would win anyway, or Hitler = not a threat to USA, even if conquered all Europe. Interventionists, including Roosevelt, urge d immediate aid to Allies: thought Hitler = a great threat, fascism must = destroyed. Roosevelt tried to rally US opinion by declaring that USA might openly assist Allies without sending troops; instead, send equipment.

--Thus, neutrality legislation of 30s = repealed. If GBr = "spearhead of resistance to world conquest," USA would be "arsenal of democracy." Both = fighting for 4 Freedoms: freedom of speech, of worship, from want, and from fear. Ban on arms sales re pealed. In 1940, USA sent small arms shipment to GBr, and later, 50 overage destroyers in return for right to maintain US bases in Newfoundland, Bermudas, and British Caribbean. In 1941, instituted Lend-Lease policy, by which provided arms, raw materials, and food to Allies. Also introduced conscription, built up army and air force, projected a 2-ocean navy. Protected Allied shipping as far as Iceland.

--Meanwhile, Germany = poised for invasion of GBr. But success with rest of Europe = so rapid that had no real plans for invasion. Also, needed control of air before could invade by sea. Germany also hoped GBr might surrender. Thus, assault = taken in form of massive air offensive, climaxing in autumn of 1940. But with radar and decoding of secret German communications device, Royal Air Force fought off bombers with increasing success. Despite great damage, production continued and morale = maintained .

--Then in winter of 40-41, Germany shifted attack to east, to Russia. Indefinitely postponed invasion of GBr.

The Nazi Invasion of Russia: The Russian Front, 1941-1942

--Soviets and Nazi soon began to dispute over E. European territories. Russians = advancing in Baltics, Balkans, seemed bent of controlling all E. Europe.

--Germans = dismayed. Wanted to keep E. Europe to themselves as counterpart to industrial Germany. Hitler tried to regain control of Balkans: coaxed or blackmailed Rumania, Bulgaria, and Hungary into joining Axis. Yugoslavia, Greece subjugated. Thus, Balkans = part of Nazi new order. now, to end threat from east, to gain wheat of Ukraine, and oil of Caucasus, Hitler struck in June, 1941. Stalin caught by surprise.

--Germany threw 3 million men into Russia along huge 2000-mile front. Russians gave way. By autumn, Germans had White Russia and most of Ukraine. Occupied Crimean peninsula, seiged Leningrad, and within 25 miles of Moscow. But Stalin, rallying country together and replacing ineffective military commanders, mounted stubborn counteroffensive. Overconfident Germans had not calculated this, and = unprepared for early and extraordinarily harsh Russian winter. Moscow saved. A disgusted Hitler took direct mi litary command, and shifted main thrust to south: moved great offensive of 42 to oil fields of Caucasus. Took all of Crimea. Siege of Stalingrad begun. Hitler let Albert Speer direct economy to full wartime production, soon tripled armament output.

1942, The Year of Dismay: Russia, North Africa, the Pacific

--By summer of 1942, German line stretched from Leningrad to Moscow to past Stalingrad to Caucasus Mountains. Within 100 miles of Caspian Sea. But though industrial Don basin and food-producing Ukraine = overrun, and oil of Caucasus = no longer depend able, Russians continued to fight. Neither economy nor government = yet struck in a vital spot: industry = moved to Urals or Siberia, and Russians destroyed crops and industry as retreated to minimize German gains.

--Also, Germany = simultaneously moving forward in N. Africa. Stakes = high: control of Suez and Mediterranean. During height of Battle of Britain, British sent vital forces to Africa: repulsed Italians from Egypt, Ethiopia, rest of Mussolini's East A frican empire. But then, Germany sent elite Afrika Korps under Rommel, reorganized Axis armies, and attacked Libya. British = driven back to Egypt, but then drove to Libya. But by mid-1942, Rommel = again in Egypt. British made a stand at El Alamein, 70 m iles from Alexandria, their backs to the Suez.

--But Germans, breaking through Caucasus and across isthmus of Suez in N. Africa, might hold all Mediterranean and Middle East in a vise. Might even move farther east, contact their Japanese allies, who = then moving into Indian Ocean.

--Japan: By 1941, battling China for 10 years. Saw in WWII, as in WWI, a good opportunity for expansion in Asia. In 1940, cemented alliance with Axis, and in 41, signed neutrality with USSR. Moving into and occupying Indochina. USA = beginning to plac e embargoes on Japan. USA still wanted to know full extent Japanese ambitions, intentions in SE Asia. Japanese Prime Minister, General Hideki Tojo, said that Japanese aim = to expel GBr and USA from the Orient, but nonetheless agreed to send representativ es to Washington for negotiations.

--During negotiations, Japan launched heavy air raid on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and began to invade Philippines, attacked Guam, Midway, Hong Kong, and Malaya. US fleet = crippled at Pearl Harbor, allowing Japanese to roam at will in western Pacific. On December 8, USA and GBr declared war on Japan. On December 11, Axis declared war on USA.

--In 1942, Japan conquered Singapore, Philippines, Malaya, and Netherlands Indies. Invaded New Guinea, threatened Australia, invaded Indian Ocean, Burma. Seemed ready to hit India. Held up idea of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere under Japanese leadership.

--Germans almost completed vise on Mediterranean, German subs = devastating. Axis powers almost conquered the world.

--But Germany and Japan never combined their strategy and operations.

#107: The Western-Soviet Victory

Plans and Preparations, 1942-43

--By January, 1942, 26 nations, including USSR, GBr, and USA, = allied against the Axis, a combination Roosevelt called the United Nations. All pledged to use all its resources to defeat the Axis, and never to make a separate peace.

--USA and GBr pooled resources under Combined Chiefs of Staff. Overall strategy = effective from the beginning. It = decided that Germany = the main enemy, and must be first priority. Pacific = put in background. Meanwhile, Japan got Australia. MacArt hur commanded SW Pacific. Nimitz commanded Pacific navy. US army and navy soon ground Japanese advance to a halt, won great victories at Coral Sea and Midway in 1942. Soon started the ordeal of "island hopping."

--Europe: First point = air bombardment of Germany. Russians wanted establishment of true second front to alleviate devastation on Russian front. When GBr and USA declined, USSR took it as new evidence of anti-Soviet feeling. But in reality, GBr and U SA = not yet ready for such an offensive on the Festung Europa, or Hitler's Fortress of Europe. USA = still mobilizing, and German subs prevented movement of US troops to Europe until US and GBr control of Atlantic reduced sub menace in 1943. USA and GBr mounted massive and prolonged carpet bombing of German cities, industries. Land invasion = deferred until 1944.

The Turning of the Tide, 1942-43: Stalingrad, North Africa, Sicily

--GBr and USA mounted surprise offensive in Algeria and Morocco with huge amphibious operation. Allies secured cooperation of Vichy French political leader Admiral Darlan in Africa. But when Darlan = soon assassinated, De Gaulle took his place.

--Meanwhile, Germany took control over rest of France. USA and GBr forces fought eastward to Tunisia under Eisenhower, while GBr launched final counteroffensive from El Alamein under Montgomery. A large German force = crushed in Tunisia, and by May, 1 943, Africa = cleared of Axis forces: Mediterranean and Suez = open.

--Stalingrad: During winter, Germans mounted gargantuan offensive on Stalingrad, which = key transportation center for lower Volga. By September, had penetrated into the city itself. Soldiers and civilians took last desperate stand there. Hitler = jus t as obstinate on the city's capture. After several weeks, Germans held most of the city when General Zukhov counterattacked, and trapped and killed off much of German army before it surrendered. USSR thereupon recovered the losses from the first year of the war, and remained on the offensive for the rest of the war.

--Meanwhile, USA = pouring equipment into USSR under Lend-Lease policy. USSR increased its war output tremendously. But Russian human losses = still incalculable.

--With US advances in Pacific and slow throttling of German subs, there was new hope for Allies in all quarters. In summer of 43, Sicily and Mussolini fell. Italy = now under Marshal Badoglio, who made peace with Allies. But when German armies invaded , Allies = unable to get even to Rome as forces = massed in GBr for cross-Channel invasion. Stalemate.

The Allied Offensive, 1944-45: Europe and the Pacific

--Difficulty of invasion: Festung Europa = bristling with all possible defenses German technology could muster. Huge reserves, forces, aerial forces necessary.

--Allies attacked, June 6, 1944, at Normandy, while Germans = expecting main thrust at Calais from false intelligence reports. Allies poured their forces in, established a beachhead and then a front. Germans at first thrown back more easily than expec ted: by September, Allies crossed into Germany. In Belgium, France, and Italy, native resistance movements flared and expelled Germans and pro-German collaborators.

--In August, Allies landed in French Mediterranean coast, swept up to meet other forces against stiffening opposition. Hitler mounted counteroffensive in Ardennes against thinly held US position, but Allies rallied and Hitler used up his armored reser ves in the effort. Germans = steadily failing. Bombing continued unrelenting. On ground, smashed through Siegfried Line, crossed Rhine by March 1945.

--Russians = sweeping Germans from Ukraine, White Russia, Baltics, and E. Poland. Their lines overextended, Russians pushed south into Rumania and Bulgaria, which promptly joined the Allies. by April, 1945, occupied Vienna, Budapest, and were 40 miles from Berlin. Meanwhile, Eisenhower stopped 60 miles from Berlin, let the Russians take it as a good will gesture for the USSR's massive losses in the war. Similarly, Russians = allowed to take Prague. Americans = also seeking Russian aid in defeating the Japanese.

--Soon, Hitler commits suicide in Berlin, and successor Admiral Doenitz surrenders on May 8, 1945.

--Full extent of German atrocities revealed: resistance fighters rounded up and shot, entire villages razed and inhabitants killed, concentration/death camps with gas chambers and crematories. Many millions exterminated, especially the 6 million Jews. All this done in effort to Germanize all of Europe for the glory of the "master race." Genocide.

--Japan: Island hopping = approaching Japan itself. Eventually reached Okinawa, only 300 miles from the Island. Heavy bombing destroyed Japanese industry, navy. Japanese = seriously considering peace, but USA would not believe Japanese = willing to ne gotiate. American army = preparing to shift troops from Europe to Pacific for full-scale invasion of Japan itself. But when USA dropped the two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japanese made peace at once. Surrender signed on Sept.2, 1945. Emperor remained head of state, but Japanese islands = placed under US military rule.

--Total losses: about 45 million? Would have been much more had it not been for new penicillin and sulfa drugs, and blood plasma transfusions.

#108: The Foundations of the Peace

--No single humiliating treaty like the Versailles Treaty, but a series of agreements.

--Argued by some that foundations of peace = laid during the war during meetings among the Allied leaders:

--1941: Atlantic Charter. Reconfirmation of Wilson's 14 Points and implementation of Roosevelt's 4 Freedoms. Roosevelt and Churchill.

--1943: Casablanca. Unconditional surrender. Roosevelt and Churchill.

Teheran. Postwar occupation and demilitarization of Germany, plans for postwar international organization. Roosevelt postponed discussion of territorial division of E. Europe to after the war. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. Agreed that while G Br and USA attacked France, Stalin would attack from east. Thus, Stalin = guaranteed control over almost all E. Europe.

--1945: Yalta. Agreements on future of Germany, Poland and E. Europe, the war in the Far East, and the UN. Stalin = agreed to apply principles of the Atlantic Charter to Poland and E. Europe, but only a verbal concession: never carried out. Germany = to be demilitarized and split into 4 zones under government of Big Three and France. Discussion on structure of UN. Stalin agreed to enter war against Japan in return for many territorial concessions: southern half of Sakhalin, privileges in Manchuria, a nd Kurile islands. Stalin would also confirm Chinese political sovereignty over Manchuria and support the Chinese nationalist party.

--But Japanese imperialism = thereby effectively replaced by Russian imperialism, with no consultation of Chinese. These concessions = thought necessary for Soviet support in war against Japan, which eventually turned out to be 0. Ideals Atlantic Ch arter = compromised.

Postdam. Truman, Stalin, and Churchill, then Clement Atlee. Agreements announced on postwar treatment of Germany, punishment of war criminals. Poland = extended westward into Germany and compensation for Russian expansion into Poland. German E. P russia = divided between Russia and Poland. Agreed that a Council of Foreign Ministers from USA, GBr, France, USSR, and China would prepare the peace treaties with the Axis powers. But subsequent stormy meetings of the Council showed widening chasm betwee n western powers and USSR.

--February, 1947: Peace signed with Italy, Rumania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland. But never with Germany, which = split in two.