Chapter XVII: The Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union

--Comparisons with the French Revolution

--Similarities: Both = movements for liberation, one against feudalism and despotism, the other against capitalism and imperialism. Neither was a strictly national movement, but could be easily internationalized. Both attracted followers in all count ries, and a strong reaction from those who felt threatened. Both illustrated the same pattern of revolutionary politics: fair unity of opinion while problem was to overthrow the old regime, followed by conflict over the founding of the new, until a small, organized, and determined minority suppressed all opposition to defend or advance the revolution. Both also eventually killed off most of its most revolutionary leaders.

--Differences: Russia was in rear, and France in front of society at the times of their respective revolutions. Main strength of French rev. = the middle class, while force of Russian = from the peasants and workers. In France, revolution just "happe ned," while the Russian = the product of long and systematic planning. In France, revolution = followed by reaction, while in Russia, no such thing has yet happened.

--And Russian revolution had greater repercussions because of Russia's ambivalence: Russia = historically both European and Asian. If the most backward among the European nations, it = the most advanced in the non-European world. Won sympathy of Eur opean left by its denunciations of capitalism. Attracted repressed peoples of other continents because it denounced imperialism, the highest stage of capitalism. Soviet Union suggested for the Third World a way to become modern without becoming capitalist , imperialist, or Western. Communism = seen as part of worldwide rebellion against European supremacy.

#91: Backgrounds

Russia after 1881: Reaction and Progress

--In 1881, reformist tsar Alexander II = assassinated by members of the People's Will. Son, Alexander III, tried to stamp out revolutionism and all criticism of government. Revolutionaries = eliminated, exiled. Jewish pogroms. Policy of systematic Rus sification under Pobiedonostsev, procurator of the Holy Synod, who declared Slavic nationalism.

--Still, Russia = being drawn inexorably into Europe. Great, predominantly Western works of literature and music. Increasing contributions to the sciences, esp. chemistry. Russians = thought to = talented in the more abstruse intellectual exercises.

--Since 1880s, Russia = also passing through Industrial Revolution, and taking its place in the world economic system. Foreign investment = flowing in. Rapid industrialization. Gold standard adopted to facilitate investment and foreign trade.

--Industrialization also brought increases in business and wage-earning classes, or bourgeoisie and proletariat. Although illegal, great strikes brought misery of new proletariat to public attention.

--Russian industries = characteristically large-scale endeavors, requiring large capital investment. Much of industry = owned by foreigners or the government; government itself = heavy borrower from Europe, and so foreigners owned most of Russia's in dustry. Also, government = less dependent on taxes from its own people to maintain its absolutist regime.

--But Russia's rising business and professional classes = strong enough to form a liberal party, called the Constitutional Democrats, or Cadets. Included many of those who had been active under the zemstvos. Mostly liberals, progressives, or constitut ionalists, thinking less about proletariat than the need for a nationally elected parliament.

--Russia = still mostly agricultural. 4/5 of population remained peasants, mostly under village communes, or mirs. Peasants = still under a heavy burden: redemption $ from the Emancipation, high taxes. Constantly rising export of cereals kept food fro m the peasants. From these pressures and crude methods of agriculture, peasants = forever trying to cultivate more land. "Land hunger." Since Emancipation gave them only 1/2 of the land, peasants tried to buy the rest from non-peasant owners. Mirs = flour ishing: enabled lesser peasants to make land purchases, and gave some security above uncertain pleasures of private property.

--Exceptions = the wealthier peasants, or kulaks. Not liked by the masses.

The Emergence of Revolutionary Parties

--Peasants = traditional source of revolutionary disturbance. Still some grounds for discontent in receiving only 1/2 of the land with the Emancipation. Resented existence of the landed aristocrats. Land hunger could not be appeased. But from 1870s-19 00, peasants = quiet.

--Other source of revolution = the intelligentsia. Revolutionaries, distinguished from liberals or progressives, wanted a catastrophic overthrow of the tsardom. But since had little actual power, spent most of their time in vehement debates among one another, refining doctrine. By 1890, terrorism and nihilism of 1870s = gone. but now, new question = whether revolution could find an army. Question = whether peasants or emerging proletariat = the true revolutionary class, whether Russia had to experienc e a capitalist stage or just skip it.

--Most of revolutionaries = "populists," generally held a mystical belief in the might of the Russian people. But since most Russians = peasants, populists = interested in peasant issues. Revolutionary class = the peasants. Read and respected Marx and Engels, but thought that capitalist stage could = skipped. Thus, revolution could = very soon. In 1901, formed the Social Revolutionary Party.

--Also, strict Marxists = gaining. Foundations of Russian Social Democratic or Marxist Party = set in exile, in Switzerland. Rapid development of machine industry, factory labor, and strikes, in comparison to quiet peasantry, made many populists turn to strict Marxism.

--Lenin: arrested as a revolutionary, sent to Siberia. There, spent 3 easy years, but chafed at being separated from political developments at home. After his term, Lenin went to W. Europe, where he stayed until 1917. From his intellectual vigor, per sonal drive, and shrewdness, he soon became a force in his party.

--In 1898, spurred on by emigres, Marxists founded Social Democratic Labor party. Although no more revolutionary than the Social Revolutionaries, they were more strict Marxists. More inclined to view revolution as an international dialectic. Tended to think that Russia needed to develop capitalism, proletariat, and class struggle before revolution = possible. Urban proletariat = the true revolutionary class. Looked on peasantry with suspicion. Hated the Social Revolutionaries. Disapproved of terrorism and assassination. Doctrine and revolution seemed more conditional and far in the future.

Split in the Social Democrats: Bolsheviks and Mensheviks

--Second Party Congress to unify all Russian Marxists, 1903, but ended up splitting them forever. 2 resulting factions = the Bolsheviks (majority men) and Mensheviks (minority men). Lenin = main author of the split, and thus, main founder of Bolshevis m. In 1912, Bolsheviks separated from Mensheviks.

--Bolshevism: also called Leninism. Party should = a small revolutionary elite, a hard core of reliable and zealous workers. Strongly centralized party, with strong authority from the top, by which central authority would form the official doctrine or party line and thereby control all levels of government. Party should = periodically strengthen itself by purges, forcible elimination of deviant opinions. Forcible dictatorship of the proletariat, rigid affirmation of Marxist fundamentals: dialectical m aterialism and irreconcilable class struggle.

--Lenin's contributions to Marxism: made certain theories of imperialism into first-rank ideas of the Marxist doctrine. Imperialism = the final, highest stage of capitalism. Monopolies = bent on investing capital in underdeveloped countries for great er profits. Unceasing drive for colonies and markets in an already partitioned world brings imperialist wars for redistribution of colonies, and colonial struggles for independence. This = the breeding grounds for revolution of the proletariat. But otherw ise, Lenin denounced any other attempts to add to Marxism. He = furious at revisionism and attempts to add religion. He = a convert, not an inventor: he spent his time showing how the events of the 20c confirmed Marx's predictions. Lenin = the supreme agi tator.

--Lenin developed Marx's idea of the role of the party: an organization in which intellectuals provided leadership and understanding for workers, who could not see for themselves. Intellectuals should guide the blind masses. Foresaw that the proletar ian dictatorship might represent the conscious wishes of a small vanguard and might have to impose itself on the masses by unshrinking force.

#92: The Revolution of 1905

Background and Revolutionary Events

--Simultaneous foundation of Constitutional Democratic, Social Revolutionary, and Social Democratic parties = a clear sign of discontent. All 3 = mostly propaganda agencies, leaders without followers, working mostly underground.

--But after 1900, increasing signs of popular unrest. But these popular movements had no links to any of these parties.

--Tsarist government had refused to make any concessions. Tsar Nicholas II = narrow-minded, tutored by Pobiedonostsev. For him, all criticism of government seemed merely childish. Old autocracy = best and only form of government for Russia.

--Court hoped that short, successful war with Japan would cement the nation together around the government. But war = such a fiasco that general feeling = that the government had shown its incompetence to the world. But there was little any party cou ld do.

--New peasant factory workers believed that if they could get their grievances to the ears of tsar, who = above all the hard capitalists and officials, that he would = shocked and rectify all the evils. Thus, they drew up a petition asking an 8-hour d ay, a minimum wage, a repudiation of bungling bureaucrats, and a democratically elected Constituent Assembly. Unarmed and respectful, they before tsar's winter palace. But tsar was not in, and trembling officials ordered troops to march in and shoot. Seve ral hundred killed in "Bloody Sunday" massacre.

--Peasants saw that the tsar = their enemy, not their ally. Waves of political strikes broke out. Social Democrats appeared to give the movements revolutionary direction. Councils of workers or "soviets" = formed in Moscow. All parties tried to use t he unrest to seize leadership or at least force the government's hand.

--Tsar conceded little. In March-August, 1905, he made some minor concessions, but failed to pacify the people. The St. Petersburg soviet declared a general strike that paralyzed the country. Tsar issued his October Manifesto, promising constitution, civil liberties, and a Duma to be elected by all classes alike and with legislative powers. But tsar's main aim = to divide his opposition, not to reform. He succeeded in satisfying the Constitutional democrats, who now feared that further revolution mig ht endanger present gains. They = willing to work out all their grievances in the promised parliament.

--But peasants and workers = not yet satisfied, and continued their unrest. The several revolutionary parties worked to completely overthrow the tsardom, believing his manifesto a deception.

--But this added support = enough to let government continue itself. Peace = made with Japan.

The Results of 1905: The Duma

--Nick soon showed his intentions for the Duma. Took away most of its hoped-for powers even before its creation. Declared that it would have no power over foreign policy, the budget, or government personnel. Tsardom would never allow any real public p articipation in government.

--Extreme right and left also tried to undermine the Duma. Right used terrorism to make peasants boycott it: any liberalism = an abomination. Also, SR's and SD's refused to recognize the Duma and urged workers to boycott.

--Duma = elected by indirect and unequal voting. But without socialists, Cadets won sweeping majority. But on entering the Duma, they found themselves fighting for the bare principles on constitutional government. Tsar dismissed Duma after 2 months. C adets fled the country, and disillusioned, appealed for a general strike and mass revolution. But nothing resulted.

--Second Duma = elected in 1907. Socialists took part this time, and many entered office. But Cadets, now fearful of revolutionaries, showed more willingness to work with government. But soon ended when government arrested many socialist members as re volutionaries.

--Third Duma : Election = "adjusted" to guarantee a conservative majority. Held several sessions from 1907-1912. Fourth lasted from 1912-1916. Addressed themselves only to concrete issues, lost themselves in committee work.

The Stolypin Reforms

--Tsar's principal minister from 1906-11. Believed, like many others, that way for government to checkmate revolutionaries = for government to undertake a program of reform while still had the power. Then would attract support of all reasonable and mo derate people. Aim = to build up propertied classes as friends of the state, under belief that a state actively supported by widespread private property had little to fear from revolutionaries.

--Thus, broadened the powers of the zemstvos, in which larger landowners administered local affairs.

--Tried to replace ancient communal mirs, a possible source of communal agrarian unrest, with system of private individual property. Abolished remaining redemption payments. Allowed each peasant to sell his share of the communal rights and leave. Let peasants buy land freely from the communes or from each other. Favored the rise of the big farmers, or kulaks. Also, by letting the worst or least provident farmers sell out, he created a class of migratory wage-earners.

--Policy = successful. Increased agricultural production under the kulaks, and creation of new labor force for industry. But still, mir = far from broken, and land hunger = acute in productive areas. Largest landowners = still the gentry.

--Tsar gave him only unwilling support, and reactionists hated him for his Western outlook. SR's cried out against dissolution of communes. Marxists feared that reforms might solve agrarian discontent. Stolypin = assassinated.

--But still, Russia before WWI = moving westward. Industry = growing. Parliament. Private property and individualist capitalism = rising. Guarded freedom of the press. Although developments = attacked by both extreme right and left, both extremes = wa ning, discouraged.

#93: The Revolution of 1917

End of the Tsardom: the Revolution of March 1917

--War again put tsardom to a test it could not meet. To win war, people and government had to cooperate willingly. But this cooperation the tsar did not have. Minorities = disaffected. Peasants conscripted into armies did not feel the personal convict ion that their Western counterparts did.

--Middle Class: Because they patriotically wanted Russia to win, the glaring mismanagement of tsardom = all the less tolerable. At outbreak of war, zemstvos formed a national union to facilitate mobilization of agriculture and industry. But government distrusted signs of public activity outside of its own grasp. On the other hand, this organization made middle class conscious of its own strength, and more critical and less tolerant of the bureaucracy. Government = afraid of help offered by its own peo ple.

--During war, Duma = suspended. It = generally known that reactionaries would use a victory in war to kill liberalism and constitutionalism in Russia. Thus, war revived all the basic political issues. Union of zemstvos demanded the re-assembly of the Duma, which, when reconvened, even expressed indignation at the tsar's corruptions. Dissatisfaction with the government's ineptitude inc. greatly as war continued. Tsar again considered repression: adjourned the Duma and issued machine guns to the police. Duma and other extragovernmental bodies decided the situation could = saved only through force. Shift of even moderates and liberals for revolution raised hopes of professional revolutionaries.

--Petrograd: Tsar's government = too stupid or corrupt to install food rationing that = usual elsewhere. Hence, food shortage. On March 8, 1917, food riots broke out, which soon developed into political insurrection. Troops refused to fire on insurgen ts, and units soon mutinied. Within a few days, a Petrograd Soviet = organized.

--Middle-class leaders demanded that the old ministry be disbanded, and a new one be formed responsible to the Duma. Tsar disbanded the Duma. Thus, there are now 2 authorities: Duma: moderate, constitutionalist; and PS: spontaneous and essentially so cialist. The several socialist parties tried to control the PS for their own ends.

--Duma, under pressure from the PS, set up a Provisional Government. Duma, as a concession to PS, admitted one socialist, and demanded Nick's abdication. Tsar = then returning from front lines to palace near Petrograd. But imperial train = stopped an d turned back by troops. Army = now on side of revolution. Nick abdicated, and Russia = proclaimed a republic, March 17, 1917.

The Bolshevik Revolution: November 1917

--Provisional Government arranged for elections by universal male suffrage of a Constituent Assembly to prepare a constitution. Also tried to continue the war against Germany. But demoralized armies = soon routed. PG promised extensive land reform, bu t took no action. Peasants, driven by land hunger, turned to burning and looting. At the front, armies melted away. PS called for the quick termination of the war, against the PG.

--Lenin arrives in Petrograd in mid-April, immediately takes sides with PS against the PG. As a bid for popular support, the PG names the socialist Kerensky as its head. But without his knowledge, the general Kornilov tries to use military to suppress the soviets, but fails. Kerensky gets flak for letting such a plot be hatched under his own government, albeit without his knowledge. Thus, both liberals and moderate socialists abandoned Kerensky. Meanwhile, food shortage worsened, so workers listened m ore readily to the most extreme voices.

--At this point, Lenin adapted the Bolshevik line to promise what the people wanted to hear. 4 main points: peace, land, bread (transfer of means of production from capitalists to worker committees), and recognition of soviets and not PG as the supre me authority. With this program, and predicting the Kornilov maneuver, Bolsheviks won a majority of all the soviets.

--Lenin now judged the time ripe to seize power. Called "All power to the soviets!" to crush Kerensky and forestall the Constituent Assembly. Kerensky tried to call a preparliament representing all parties and factions, but the Bolsheviks boycotted, calling instead an all-Russian Congress of Soviets. Troops now voted to support the Bolsheviks. Soon controlled Petrograd, and held up Kerensky's government with a warship. Kerensky fled, and Congress of Soviets replaced PG with Council of People's Commis sars.

--Lenin introduced 2 resolutions: peace, and immediate abolition of all landlord property for distribution to peasants. Thus, in peasants, he created a firm power base for new regime.

--Constituent Assembly, when assembled, = promptly and forcibly disbanded. Dissolution of CA = frank repudiation of principle of majority rule for rule, or dictatorship of the Proletariat. 2 months later, Bolsheviks = renamed the Communists.

The New Regime: The Civil War, 1918-22