Chapter XV: Europe's World Supremacy

--Forty years before WWI = time of Europe's world supremacy. Customary to talk of "developed" and "less developed" parts of the earth. Even a Third World. Bifurcation of world into modern and traditional societies, rich and poor, powerful and weak. Ma ny peoples began to produce for export, and = now subject to world depression.

--Possible to speak of a world civilization, world economy, world market. Attributes of modernity = the same everywhere: modern science, modern weapons, machine industry, fast communications, industrial organization, efficient taxation and law enforce ment, public hygiene, sanitation, medicine. All = derived from Western civilization.

--Imperialism, or colonialism of late 19c: government of one people by another. A transitory step in spread of civilization of Europe's inner zone to the rest of the world. Subordinated people soon came to see need to modernize and industrialize, and also to expel the imperialists, take control of their own progress.

--Imperialist rivalries of European Great Powers also contributed to WWI, and collapse of European supremacy.

#78: Imperialism: Its Nature and Causes

--Inveterate tendency of European civilization to expand.

--From 1815-75, indifference to overseas empire. Principles of free trade made political control unnecessary for trade and commerce with a region. Although during this time British strengthened Indian empire, French moved into Algiers, Dutch developed Java, West opened Japan and started to penetrate China, there was no overt conflict, systematic program, or "ism." But around 1870, colonial questions flared, and by 1900, Europe had partitioned the rest of the world.

The New Imperialism

--The old system: Old empires had been solely mercantile: got their goods and left. No territorial ambitions beyond founding of fueling stations, trading centers, etc. America, though = great exception: this land = "uninhabited" as far as they = conce rned, and so Europeans developed claims and invested capital.

--New system: Europeans wanted goods of a kind or quantity that preindustrial methods could not supply. To get them, merchants and manufacturers invested $ in colonies to build suitable industry and housing for white supervisors. Transformed large seg ment of the population into wage earners, introduced class differences accentuated with racial tensions. Also, lent $ to native rulers. Thus, Europeans now had huge financial stake in colonies, and had to protect them through political and territorial dom ination. Some areas became outright colonies. Others = "protectorates," supposedly ruled by the native lord, but a foreign "commissioner" usually told him what to do. Others = placed under "spheres of influence."

--Strength of European states: Industrial Revolution. Democratic and nationalist movements produced a unified people willing to serve their state. Seemingly endless wealth, modern administration allowed government to tax, borrow, spend almost without limit. Meanwhile, all major non-European empires = in decay, made European intervention easy. One major exception = Japan. Otherwise, an enormous discrepancy in power between European and non-European states.

Incentives and Motives

--Missionaries had to interact with often semi-barbaric natives. Scientific expeditions required that scientists travel far away. Wealthy traveled more just for recreation. It = only reasonable that civilized people should be able to go anywhere assur ed of security of their persons and of orderly procedures that only European supervision could provide.

--Economic: Many essential raw materials could come only from the tropics or outside of Europe. Industrial countries could also try to sell their products in new markets. More intense competition among manufacturers made these markets all but necessar y. Industrialized nations raised tariffs against each other, and it seemed reasonable that each industrial country develop a colonial empire dependent on it for goods: a sheltered market; large, self-sufficient trading units spanning several different cli mates and assuring the prosperity of the home country. This = called neo-mercantilism.

--Money invested in "backward" countries brought better yields than $ invested in Europe: cheap labor of natives, heavy and unsatisfied demand for non-European products. In 1850, most exported capital = used to build up Western countries. In 1900s, mo re = going to build up less developed countries. Hence, profit motive and desire to invest surplus capital promoted capitalism.

--This explanation on surplus capital = presented by Hobson and Lenin. Ascribed imperialism to accumulation of surplus capital and attacked it on socialist grounds. Hobson argued that if more $ went to workers, then capitalists would have less to inv est, and would have a larger market at home. But this explanation = not entirely satisfactory: could not explain imperialism of countries where capitalist class = immature, like Russia and Italy. More basic = Europe's need for imports, especially exotic f oreign goods.

--But capitalist incentive = major in Britain's imperialism. Britain had huge portion of national wealth invested abroad, as did France and Germany to a lesser degree. French invested mainly in Russia, almost held it as a colony. Tsardom = kept going with foreign loans, mostly French. Incentive for this = also political; French government urged French banks to buy Russian bonds so Russia could stay ally of France against Germany.

--Chamberlain of England: argued for imperialism to maintain national security and welfare of the people. Preached for a "great self-sustaining and self-protecting empire" in face of the rise of international competition. Hoped that as Canada, New Zea land, and Australia gained independence, they would stay within British imperial federation, pool their military and economic resources. Maintain a tariff union among member nations. His proposals = rejected in his life, but implemented in post-WWI Common wealth of Nations.

--Symbolism and prestige of colonies: the mark of a Great Power.

--European states now had to maintain balance of power among themselves in colonies as well as Europe. Thus, nations sometimes annexed territory for fear that others might do so first.

Imperialism as a Crusade

--Imperialism = outthrust of whole white man's civilization, would enlighten the still benighted masses around the globe. So British spoke of the White Man's Burden, French of mission civilatrice, Germans of Kultur, and Americans of "blessings of Angl o-Saxon protection." Social Darwinism claimed that white race = superior to all others. Others argued that chances of history made the European the leading civilization, and although just for the present, Europeans must keep guardianship over the others.

#79: The Americas

--During and after Napoleonic wars, Spanish and Portuguese empires in America fell, leaving land from Colorado to Cape Horn unsettled. Most of the people = Indian or mestizo, with some pure European stock. Spanish culture predominated. Disappearance o f European control left many weak and shifting republics. But luckily, foreign imperialism at the time = at a nadir in 1820s. Also, had the Monroe Doctrine.

The United States and Mexico

--Mexico lost Texas soon after independence.

--Next threat = from Europe. Politicians borrowed lots of $ from Europe at high interest. When leader Juares repudiated the loans, European lenders demanded satisfaction. USA = paralyzed by Civil War, so GBr, France, and Spain sent troops in 1861. Fre nch managed to set up a Mexican empire under figurehead Austrian Archduke Maximilien, who ruled for several years. But Napoleon III eventually decided that conquest of Mexico = too hard or too expensive, and USA = protesting strongly, so Napoleon withdrew . Maximilien = shot, and Juares et al regained control. Meanwhile, USA became a Great Power, and Monroe Doctrine gained some substance. USA = henceforth the only imperialist power of America.

--Obvious double standard for treatment of civilized and uncivilized nations. When Mexican government suggested that Americans in Mexico be subject to Mexican law, US govt replied that citizens of advanced states should enjoy security and prosperity o f their home states. Civilized states might not interfere with affairs of other civilized states, but had right of intervention into backward countries.

US Imperialism in the 1890s

#80: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire in the 1850s

--Huge state, mostly Muslim. Some Jews, many Christians. Turks = ruling class. Muslims served in the army, non-Muslims paid taxes. People of different religions lived side-by-side, each governed by his own religion. Religious officials = all responsib le to Turkish government for their own people.

--Western Europeans enjoyed regime of "capitulations," or special rights earned in treaties with Western powers. Turkey could charge no more than an 8% tariff, Europeans = exempt from most taxes, and Europeans = guaranteed European courts of law.

--Thus, Ottoman Empire totally lacked sense of nationalism, national unity, sovereignty, uniform law, secular state. Empire had fallen behind greatly. Turkey = "sick man of Europe," and what would come of its long decline = the Eastern Question. By 18 50s, Empire = falling apart. But still, Empire = huge.

--Crimean War of 1854-56 opened new phase of Ottoman history. Turks tried to modernize and consolidate from 56-76. War showed Turkish military and political weaknesses, pointed especially to a need for organization. War proved superiority of French an d English systems.

Attempts at Reform and Revival: 1856-76

--Ottoman government issued a great reform edict in 1856. Main purpose = to create a national citizenship for all members of the empire: abolished civil authority of religious heirarchs, established equality before the law and eligibility for civil of fice w/out regard to religion. Tax reform, guarantee of security of property, abolition of torture, and prison reform. Promised to combat government corruption.

--For 20 years, Ottoman government tried seriously to make this work. Western and liberal ideas = free reign. Newspapers. A Turkish revival in literature: translations of Western master works, and large Ottoman histories. Railroads and foreign loans. But there was strong resistance to the change. And most Turkish officials = untrained, unqualified for the work at hand. Thus, movement mostly failed, and Ottoman govt repudiated 1/2 of its debt in 1874. New, more reforming minister deposed old sultan and set up Abdul Hamid II in 1876. Minister continued the reform at a new pitch. But Hamid promptly initiated a reaction.

Reaction after 1876

--Hamid ruled until 1909 as a terrified animal. Lashed out at any attempt to erode or reduce his power. Suppressed his domestic population with massacres, exiled political dissidents. Also came to fear designs of imperialist powers in Europe.

--Although might have wanted a more humanitarian regime in Turkey, Europeans definitely did not want a strong Turkey impossible to colonize.

--Pan-Slavism: Slavic nationalist movement. Favored and patronized by Russian government because it diverted attention from domestic problems and inadequacies. Slavs in Ottoman empire = willing to use Pan-Slavism as means for combatting their Turk rul ers. Revolution broke out in Bulgaria and Bosnia in 1875,76, and Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877.

--British = again willing to fight the Russians: had to protect the Suez Canal, which = within the Ottoman Empire. Before the war, English commercial interests in India and Far East = blossoming, and Canal = the key to it, the "lifeline of the Empire. " Also had to prevent Russian domination of the Black Sea, and thus, the possible construction of a Russian fleet there.

--But Russia = soon winning, and in treaty of San Stefano, 1877, got several concessions from Turks: gave Russia extensive territory along Black Sea, gave independence to Serbia, Rumania, and Bulgaria, and promised reform in Bosnia. England = infuriat ed, and Anglo-Russian, if not all-European war = impending.

--But Bismarck called for congress of all European great powers at Berlin. Europe once again tried to assert itself as a unity and revive the much-battered Concert of Europe. Congress kept peace of Europe at the expense of Turkey: Russians gave up tre aty of San Stefano, but still got their territories along Black Sea, and Serbian and Rumanian independence. Bulgaria = made semi-independent. Austria-Hungary = allowed to "occupy and administer" Bosnia. British got Cyprus. French = allowed into Tunisia. G ermany got nothing: Bismarck said he = an honest broker, and his sole interest = European peace.

--Although took care of war for now, Congress left many problems for later, helped cause WWI. Neither Balkan nationalists nor Russian Pan-Slavs = satisfied. Turks = indignant. Turkey = a greater temptation for all European great powers. Germans and Ge rman $ entered Turkey, increasing their influence.

Egypt and North Africa

--Egypt: 1850s and 60s = a time of progress. Government, court system, and property law = modernized. Cooperated with French in building the Suez Canal. Encouraged shipping in Red Sea, allowed French and English to build railroads. Increased export of cotton. Egypt = drawn increasingly into the world market. Khedive became westernized, commissioned Aida from Verdi.

--But all this cost $, borrowed mostly from England or France. Egypt = soon in financial trouble, temporarily relieved by selling Canal shares to England. Khedive = abdicated, replaced by a Western puppet. Nationalists rebelled, and in a pattern repe ated throughout colonial world, opposed both foreigners and government, the government for aiding foreign interest. Resistance = defeated by British, who stayed there until after WWII. Egypt = thus a British protectorate. Khedive = protected by the Britis h, who helped the Egyptian economy.

--French objected strongly to British presence in Near East, for French had by far the greatest investment there. To compensate for British gains, French built a N. African empire in Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco. GBr and Germany in turn objected to Frenc h growth. Fertile grounds for WWI.

--Young Turks took control of government in 1908, forced restoration of constitution, introduced many reforms. Bulgaria announced full independence, and Austria annexed Bosnia. Italy took Libya, 1912.

#81: The Partition of Africa

The Opening of Africa

--David Livingstone: Scottish medical missionary devoted to humanitarian and religious work in Africa. Did little trading, much travel and discovery, but without political or economic aims. Soon on safe and friendly terms with the natives, content to be isolated from Europe. But word spread in Europe that Livingstone = lost. New York Herald sent reporter Stanley to find him out, which he did in 1871. Livingstone soon died. But Stanley saw vast possibilities in Africa, went to Europe to solicit support . In 1878, Leopold II of Belgium agreed to help.

--Leopold founded International Congo Association in 1878 with help of few financiers as a purely private enterprise. Stanley concluded hundreds of treaties with local chiefs allowing Association to come in. Rest of European nations = soon scrambling for territory. Although hesitant over involvement in Africa, they were pushed on by colonizing enthusiasts, and scared of being left out.

--Bismarck called for another Berlin conference in 1885 to submit African question to international regulation. Attempted to set up Congo Association as an international state under international auspices and restrictions, and to draft an internationa l protocol governing the way Europeans acquired African territory.

--Congo Free State = created to replace the Association. Embodied international mandate for government of "backward" peoples. State's government = given to Leopold, boundaries = drawn. Congo River = internationalized, free for all navigation. Slave t rade should be suppressed. Later Brussels conference took further steps against slavery, and tried to protect native rights, correct some abuses, and reduce traffic of liquor and firearms.

--But no mechanisms for enforcement, so this attempt at internationalism failed.

--Leopold = determined to make Congo profitable: imposed labor on the people with inhuman severity and pillaged the land for its resources. But still, could not make the enterprise profitable. In 1908, Belgium inherited the Congo, and new administrati on removed some of Leopold's worst excesses.

--Berlin Conference also specified a certain procedure for legal claim to African land: only countries with previous holdings on African coast could enter its interior, and land must be physically occupied by troops and administrators before could rig htfully be claimed. Scramble for "real" occupation ensued: whites would appear, get treaties from local chieftains. But chieftains often did not have traditional authority to concede the rights they did; thus, European treaties often built up the chieftai ns to have these rights. Widespread system of indirect rule, whereby Europeans would govern through existing chiefs and tribal forms.

--Labor: African patterns of labor = different from the European. So Europeans devised various tricks to extort continuous labor from Africans. Net result = that African populace = demoralized, and old tribal/village system = destroyed without replac ement.

--20c: Enlightened colonial administration helped ease conditions. Colonial officials even came to protect natives against European interest. Part of colonialization = to put down slavery, tribal warfare, superstition, disease, and illiteracy. Some Af ricans = given Western educations, and these elements later led the nationalistic resistance to the Europeans.

Friction and Rivalry between the Powers

--From 1885 to 1900, Europeans came close to war in Africa. French occupied almost entire NW of Africa, and a tad at mouth of Red Sea: ambition = to unite these pieces into giant band across N. Africa. Germans had blocks off of lower and middle west a nd middle east coasts: ambition = to unite these blocks into giant band acros middle and south Africa. But Britain had Egypt and considerable block under it stretching to Congo, and S. Africa up to Rhodesia: ambition = to unite these two pieces into band along all E. Africa. These = the principal contenders. Italy and Portugal = also allowed considerable holdings since Great Powers would rather these countries have them than another great power.

--While pursuing these ambitions, French and English sent expeditions to stake claims to the Upper Nile. Expeditions met at Fashoda, 1898. Each government forced a showdown from the encounter. A test of strength. British threatened to fight. But Frenc h, insecure of their position against Germany, backed down. Wave of hatred against Britain swept over France.

--To further the "Cape to Cairo" ambition, prime minister of S. Africa tried to annex Orange Free State and Transvaal, both populated by Afrikaners, and both resistant to foreign control. But when gold and diamonds = dicovered in Transvaal, S. Africa pressed harder, even sent armed men to try to precipitate revolution. Great cry in Europe against the British bully. Nonetheless, Britain went to war against the republics in 1898-1901 Boer War, annexed them to S. Africa.

--Both Fashoda crisis and Boer War revealed great European hatred of British. British soon began to rethink their international relations. Little territorial change after Boer War.

#82: Imperialism in Asia: The Dutch, British, and Russians

The Dutch East Indies and British India

--The world's perfect colonies: Consistent surplus of exports, the hallmark of a developed colonial area. Good deal of internal business--commerce, insurance, banking, transportation--while boosted profits further. Rich natural resouces not to be foun d in Europe, and thus, in no competition with Europe. Adept people, divided by religion and language, so quick to learn and easy to govern. Most illustrious government posts reserved for Europeans, so colonies = usu. land of opportunity for upper class. N o foreign power directly threatened their control of the colonies.

--Dutch: Java, associated islands. French had Indochina, British had Singapore, Malay, Borneo, and Germans had N. Guinea, Marshall and Solomon Islands. Mutual jealousy among these powers let Dutch keep their possessions. Dutch expanded to get 3000 mil es of islands. Revolts suppressed, farmers "taxed" for agricultural goods. Dutch favored native languages to slow Westernization and nationalism.

--British: In 1857, faced a dangerous rebellion: the Indian Mutiny, 1857. Indian army = mostly of sepoys, or native Indian troops. Indians outside army had been restless for decades, and offended with British disdain of their religion. Mysterious prop oganda appeared that bullets of Indians = greased with cow fat, and bullets of Muslims = greased with pig fat. Sepoys mutinied in Ganges valley, joined with other interests, including the Great Mogul.

--British put down the rebellion, pursued a new policy. Dissolved the British E. India Co. and Mogul Empire. British authorities would rule directly. Must rule with and through Indians, not against them. Thus, British collaborated with Indian upper c lasses, supported their interests, became more indulgent of their religion. Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India, 1877.

--India = once great preindustrial manufacturer. But this role = gone with Industrial Revolution. Instead, British turned India to agriculture. British shipped manufactures in return.

--British advocated use of English in India. Thought that native dialects = vehicles for barbarous ideas, a bar to progress. Indians allowed into civil service, Western universities. Many Indian businessmen. Class of westernized Indians arose, demand ing greater role in their government, which they got. In 1885, Hindu Indian National Congress formed. Muslim All-India Muslim League, 1906, formed in reaction. Nationalism spread: increasingly anti-British, and against the Indian princes and businessmen a s their accomplices.

Conflict of Russian and British Interests

--About 1850, Russian pressure on inner Asia = resumed. Russians, like Westerners, wanted to spread their civilization, but there were also profound political reasons as well: Russia needed warm-water ports. But most Russian advance at this time = on land. Britain fought Afghan wars to keep Afghanistan a no-man's land between India and Russia. New frontier with Russia along Himalayas.

--Russia increased pressure on Persia, which had a seacoast. But British soon moved in with telegraph, loans, and other investment. Both = scurrying for control, until British recognized Russian sphere of influence in north, 1907. Much deeper hostilit y between Britain and Russia

#83: Imperialism in Asia: China and the West

China before Western Penetration

--Manchu dynasty = nearing its end: failing to preserve order or reduce government corruption. Many rebellions. In Taiping Rebellion of 1850, about 20 mill people died: mainly against the Manchus, who = foreigners, and their corruption. Taiping set up state in S. China, but fighting lasted so long that armies got out of control, and much of country sank into banditry and disorder, control of warlords. Manchus finally suppressed rebellion with great difficulty and Western help.

--Into this softened China, Westerners entered. Extorted concessions from Manchu, and promised to defend Manchu against internal rebellion. This = because Europeans needed some kind of government with which to sign treaties.

The Opening of China to the West

--Opium War, 1839-1841: China had no demand for Western products save Indian-grown opium. When Chinese government tried to control influx of opium, British went to war. Concluded with Treaty of Nanking. In 1857, British and French went to war again to force Chinese to receive their diplomats and deal with their traders. When Chinese resisited, troops burned emperor's Summer Palace and looted it. Concluded with Treaty of Tientsin. Both these treaties = soon repeated with all the other foreign powers.

--This system, placing certain restrictions on China and conferring certain rights on foreigners = called the "treaty system." British got Hong Kong. Shanghai, Canton opened as "treaty ports." Europeans = subject only to their own governments, and Chi na = forced to pay large war indemnities. Basically, a free-trade market for European goods.

Annexations and Concessions

--While China = rotting from inside-out, chunks = being cut away from it from the outside. Russians moved down Amur River, founded Vladivostok, 1860. Japanese in 1876 recognized independence of Korea. British got Burma. French assumed protectorate ove r IndoChina, or almost all ESE Asia.

--Japan soon developed an imperialistic urge. In 1894, Japan soon won war with China over disputes in Korea. Japan got Formosa and Liaotung peninsula, and Korea = formally given independence. World = shocked with Japan's sudden emergence to power. It = supposed that Japan had designs on Manchuria.

--But Russia also had designs on Manchuria. Already began the Trans-Siberian Railway, which would be threatened by another great power in Manchuria. France = in league with Russia, and Germany = also looking to get involved in Far East. Thus, all thre e demanded that Tokyo give up Liaotung. Indignant, the Japanese yielded.

--Chinese, humiliated, tried to Westernize. Huge loans taken from Europe. But European powers did not want China to consolidate yet, as Japan had done in only 40 years. Thus, great powers scrambled for more concessions in 1898. At this point, it looke d like China would = partititioned into spheres of influence. But USA announced Open Door policy: China would stay territorially intact and independent, and powers with special concessions or spheres of influence should maintain 5% Chinese tariff within t heir power and allow free trade with other great powers. Policy = not so much to leave China to Chinese as to assure that outsiders could trade freely.

--Boxer Rebellion, 1899: Fell upon all foreign influence. European powers + Japan and USA put them down. Victors imposed more severe controls on Chinese government and indemnity of $330 mill. Manchu again tried desperately to Westernize, while revolut ionary movement spread rapidly throughout country.

#84: The Russo-Japanese War and Its Consequences

--Russia and Japan competing for Manchuria and Korea. Japan needed raw materials and new markets, and to use its army and navy. Also wanted Great Power recognition. Russia needed atmosphere of crisis and expansion to stifle criticism of tsardom at hom e. Russia could use Manchuria and Korea to strengthen position of Vladivostok, which = otherwise precarious. Presence of another Great Power on eastern border = unacceptable.

--Russia got concessions from China to build Chinese Eastern Railway across heartland of Manchuria. Japanese saw the fruits of their war with China taken by Russians. In 1902, Japanese signed alliance with Britain, Russia's traditional enemy.

--War, 1904: undeclared attack on Port Arthur. Both armies sent large forces to Manchuria. Russian navy met an destroyed. Land battles won. Roosevelt then stepped in: with outposts in Philippines and increasing interest in China, it = best not to have either side win overwhelmingly. Representatives called to Portsmouth, where in 1905 signed treaty of Portsmouth: Japan got Port Arthur and Liaotung, preferred position in Manchuria, and protectorate of Korea. In 1910, Korea annexed by Japan. Japan also g ot 1/2 of Sakhalins.

--This war = first between Great Powers since 1870, and first war fought under developed industrialism. First war actually to be fought out over control of exploitation of undeveloped country. First time that nonwhite people had defeated a white peopl e in modern times.

--Repercussions: Russian foreign policy = henceforth directed West, to Baltics, factored in WWI. Tsarist government = so weakened in prestige and military that various underground movements = coming to the surface. Produced the Revolution of 1905, pre lude to the great one in 1917. Japan's victory electrified non-Europeans. Everywhere people concluded that solution to imperialism = Westernization, as Japan had done. Increasing self-assertion of Asians and other ethnic groups. Finally, 3 main repercussi ons of Russo-Japanese War: WWI, Russian Revolution, and Revolt of Asia.