Chapter 11: Expansion and Sectional Crisis

--In 1840's, impulse to expand flared up again. Reasons = several.

--First, the American people = sorely tempted by boundless tracts of land just beyond borders of their country. American fur trappers brought back news of fertile lands in Far West. Publicity to region beyond Great American Desert once again made the West a land of adventure and romance.

--Second, there was an inc desire to trade with the Orient: three best ports on Pacific coast = San Diego, San Francisco, and Puget Sound.

--The third, which probably explains for the rebirth of interest at this precise time, = the renewed fear that security of USA might be impaired by foreign intervention in nearby territories, esp. by British activity in Texas, California, and Oregon.

--Areas of settlement:

--Texas: Mexican government opened the land to American settlers who would ubmit to Mexican government and abide by its laws. But most settlers = unwilling to give allegiance to a nation whose culture = so different from their own. Mounting tension p rompted Mexican government in 1830 to drastically switch its policy: stopped further American immigration, prohibited further importation of slaves, placed heavy duties on American goods, and dispatched troops to the border to enforce laws. General Santa Anna seized political power in Mexico, nearly abolished Mexico's entire federal system.

--Texans revolted. At first, fought for old Mexican constitution, then independence altogether. General Sam Houston won decisive victory, took Santa Anna prisoner, made him sign treaty of Texan independence. Texans ratified a constitution, and showe d overwhelming support for annexation to America. President Houston then began negotiations with government at Washington.

--Northerners feared annexation of another slave state. Annexation might also lead to war with Mexico. Claimed that settlement, revolution, and movement for annexation of Texas = all a Southern plot.

--Jackson, and then Van Buren refused to address annexation, since became a political issue. Rebuffed, Texas turned in 1838 to Europe for recognition and aid. British friendliness spurred President Tyler to reopen talks, but still couldn't annex.

--Oregon: America and Britain held equal claims to the area. Could not agree on a line of separation, so agreed until 1840s to keep the area free and open. But missionaries in area reported of fecund soil and favorable climate, and thousands poured i nto the country. Set up provisional government, demanded annexation to USA.

--California: California, under inept Mexican government, fell into chaos. Americans trickled in.

--Utah: great Mormon migration into the area, under Brigham Young.

Polk and the Triumph of Manifest Destiny

--The Election of Polk: Panic of 1837 kept alive issues of national policies on banking, money, and public lands. Abolitionist crusade made compromise harder to achieve. Doctrine of Manifest Destiny = at its height: drive for Pacific = becoming an irr esistable force. Slavery + expansion eventually fragmented Whig and Democratic organizations.

--Clay got Whig nomination to Presidency on platform that avoided taking a stand on Texas or other major issues.

--Polk, a dark horse, got Democratic nomination on platform of territorial expansion: to avoid sectional conflict, advocated annexation of both Texas and Oregon. Polk won.

--Polk reflected continuing influence of Jacksonian principles on Democratic party, and growing Southern influence on party. Favored a low revenue tariff: Walker tariff angered North, delighted South. Re-established Independent Treasury system. Blocke d every effort to revive Clay's and Adam's American system.

--Texas admitted in 1845.

--Oregon: Polk did not want war with England while possibility existed of war with Mexico. Buchanan-Pakenham treaty, 1846, = accepted. Divided Oregon along 49th Parallel, but gave Britain all of Vancouver, right to navigate Columbia River. America got Puget Sound.

War With Mexico

--Causes: Inability of US citizens to get compensation for claims against Mexican government, anger of Mexicans over Texan annexation, dispute over southern and western boundaries of Texas, and instability of Mexican government. But even more importan t = Polk's determination to get California and N. Mexico, by money and/or force.

--Texas wanted to expand territory to Rio Grande. Polk sent General Zachary Taylor into the area. This action bred war spirit in Mexico. Polk sent negotiator to Mexico to negotiate Texas and purchase of California and N. Mexico. But existing governmen t = collapsing, and new government = rising, with pledge to uphold nation's dignity. Neither government would receive the negotiator.

--In Spring, 1846, Mexican troops crossed Rio Grande, and USA declared war. But domestic support = not strong. Northerners suspected another Southern plot. Many wondered if USA hadn't started the war.

--Course of the war: 3 campaigns:

1) Taylor crossed Rio Grande, defeated Mexican forces, forced them to retreat to Mexico City.

2) Colonel Kearny captured Santa Fe, San Diego fairly easily, securing US possession of N. Mexico and California.

3) Winfield Scott landed near Vera Cruz, advanced slowly to Mexico City, which they captured in fall of 1847.

--In winter, 1848, signed treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: USA got California, Texas, and Rio Grande boundary for $ 15 million, and assumption of all claims of US citizens against Mexico.

Crisis and Compromise

--Issue of slavery expansion

--Wilmot Proviso: Wilmot, a Northern Democrat, proposed an amendment requiring that all new territories must be free. For next 15 years, issue of slavery expansion would drive wedge even deeper between N and S.

--Brought up question of morality of slavery. For introduction of slavery to be immoral in new territories ==> it is immoral everywhere. Thus, Southerners opposed any measure to abolish slavery anywhere.

--But support for Proviso = not just moral. Many opposed slavery expansion for racist motives: to keep blacks out of Western territories, to defend the rights of white freedmen.

--Northern politicians tried to justify with "necessary and proper" clause of Constitution.

--Southerners tried to counter with extreme state-rights view. Territories = property of all states, and Congress had no right to prevent a citizen of any state from moving from one state to another with his property<---including slaves. Only when t erritory = ready for statehood could it abolish slavery.

--Third doctrine, of "popular sovreignty," = increasing in popularity, esp among moderates of all sections.

--Election of 1848:

--Democrats: Van Buren led faction of disaffected Democrats, called "Barnburners," who desperately wanted Van Buren for president. Throughout North, many free-soil Democrats supported Wilmot Proviso. But when Democrats met, decided that Northern cand idate = essential, threw nomination to Lewis Cass, whose opposition to Wilmot Proviso and support of popular sovreignty would appease the Southern Democrats. Thus, Barnburners and free-soil Democrats left prepared to revolt.

--Whigs: nominated Zachary Taylor, a Southern slaveholder. No platform to avoid controversy. But Northern Conscience Whigs refused to vote for a slaveholder whose views they did not know. Thus, bolted their party.

--Anti-slavery leaders galvanized Barnburners, free-soil Democrats, and Conscience Whigs into a powerful third party: the Free-Soil party, running Van Buren for President. Platform bluntly demanded that slavery = excluded from territories, and oppose d any more concessions to Slave Power. Also, advocated internal improvements, free homesteads, and "free soil, free speech, free labor, free men."

--Taylor won.

--Taylor and the Crisis: Taylor = basically ignorant in politics.

--California = still ruled by army officers directly responsible to President. But with discovery of gold, inpouring of '49ers, this system = overloaded. Rest of federal government = paralyzed with slave issue, so Taylor advised that California and N . Mexico frame constitutions and apply for statehood. Both framed constitutions prohibiting slavery.

--Compromise of 1850: Southerners denounced Taylor as apostate, tool of Northerners, while followers of Calhoun vowed that they would break up the Union before slavery = excluded from California or N. Mexico. Also, Texans and N. Mexicans = fighting ov er common boundary, abolitionists = gaining support to abolish slavery in D.C., and Southerners = clamoring for more effective fugitive slave law. Mississippi also called for convention at Nashville of all southern states in June of 1850. Many feared that Calhoun et al might use the convention to expedite Southernn secession from Union.

--Moderates from both sides decided that nothing short of complete settlement of all outstanding issues could save the Union. All looked to Henry Clay for compromise:

Compromise of 1850:

1) California admitted as free state

2) Territorial governments provided for rest of Mexican cession with no restrictions on slavery

3) Texas abandon its claim to east N. Mexico

4) Federal government compensate Texas by assuming public debt Texas contracted before annexation

5) Use of D.C. as slave depot = prohibited

6) Slavery = abolished in D.C. only with consent of residents and state of Maryland, and with compensation to slaveholders.

7) A new, more rigorous Fugitive Slave Act

8) Congress declare that it has no power to interfere with interstate slave trade

--For Calhoun, present crisis = due to breakdown of old sectional equilibrium, to Northern agression against South, and destruction of rights of states in face of growing federal government. Nothing could save Union but an end to antislavery agitatio n, faithful enforcement of Fugitive Slave Act, equal rights for South in territories, and constitutional amendment restoring balance between the two sections.

--Webster: refuted Calhoun's charges against the North, but clearly tried to make Compromise palatable to North. Vilified as an apostate by abolitionists. Greatly strenghtened the cause of the Compromise.

--Seward: denounced Compromise as radically wrong and essentially vicious. Said that only way to end anti-slavery agititation = to destroy slavery. Denounced Calhoun's arguments on the Constitution by appealing to a higher, divine law.

--Still, as debates rolled on, support for Compromise increased. Compromise = strengthened when moderates prevailed at Nashville convention, said that they = willing for a fair settlement.

--But Taylor threatened veto. He died, and Veep, Fillmore, took office<---immediately supported the Compromise. Compromise = passed as separate proposals.

The Aftermath

--Public reaction to Compromise: Shunned by some from each section as an unclean thing. Abolitionists called Northern legislators who approved Compromise tools of Slave Power. Georgia Platform typified public opinion in Deep South: Georgia would resis t, even to secession from the Union, any congressional act abolishing slavery in D.C., refusing to admit a slave state, excluding slavery from the territories, or repealing the Fugitive Slave Act.

--But most Americans accepted Compromise with great relief and hope for respite from sectional agitation.

--Franklin Pierce: Further evidence of hope that Compromise would settle the slavery question = presidential election of 1852. Democrats adopted a platform endorsing Compromie without qualification, and promised to resist any agitiation of slavery que stion. Nominated Pierce. Whig Party "acquiesced" in Compromise, and therefore pleased almost no one. Nominated General Winfield Scott. Pierce won.

--Pierce = amiable man with modest talent, almost no ability for executive leadership. Close ties to Southern Democrats and sympathy for their views on public policy caused antislavery leaders to damn him as a "doughface," a "northern man with southe rn principles." But his support of Compromise suited popular mood.

--Surviving sources of friction: disintegration of Whig party left one fewer link between North and South. Admission of California had upset balance in Senate, and admission of more free states = imminent. Railroad building and industrial expansion ga ve North economic supremacy. Secessionists argued that rights and interests of minority South = at mercy of hostile and overbearing North. Northern individuals and states tried to at least partially nullify new Fugitive Slave Act. HB Stowe's Uncle Tom's C abin.